Social Studies 11

A DIFFERENT CANADA

Wilfred Laurier (Liberal Prime Minister) proclaimed that the 20th century would be the century of Canada

‐ In the early 20th century, most Canadians lived on farms/small villages

‐ Victorian Era: An era named after Queen Victoria that was morally strict. Families were expected to attend church regularly and fully support England.

‐ Suffragists: A group of women who despite repression, wanted the right to vote so they could influence their government.

‐ Canada began to become urbanized as literature and art became more Canadian and sentimental

‐ Canada was still however, very much a British colony

‐ French Canadians did not support Britain, they were nationalists who wanted Canada to be more independent

CANADA’S CHANGING POPULATION

‐ After Laurier became prime minister, he realized Canada needed more people

‐ He started to promote Canada as a great place to live and encouraged immigration

‐ Most Canadians however were ethnocentric, thinking their own race was superior

‐ As a result, racism and discrimination were common practices for the immigrants that came in

‐ Head tax: The federal government then tried to limit immigration from Asia by placing a head tax on immigrants from China.

‐ In 1908, there was a virtual ban on East Indian Immigrants

‐ The summer of 1914, The Komagata Maru, a ship carrying mostly Sikhs, was forced to return to India after they were denied entry into Canada

ABORIGINAL PEOPLE

‐ The movements of Aboriginals were regulated under the Indian Act of 1876

‐ By the 1880s, Aboriginals in the Prairies were living on reserves: designated areas of land, used to free the open land for European immigrants.

‐ Aboriginals were expected to take up farming as opposed to hunting, but a lot of them went hungry as equipment was limited

‐ Residential schools: Schools for Aboriginal children run by churches where the conditions were unsanitary and caused diseases like tuberculosis to spread quickly.

‐ Assimilation: A federal government policy trying to abolish traditional Aboriginal culture and accustom them to the European way of life. Such residential schools and forced farming are examples of this.

URBANIZATION

‐ More people began to move to towns and cities, however the contrast between rich and poor was evident

‐ As the population Canada grew, as did the economy, with the use of electricity boosting Canada’s industrial growth

‐ Workers began to form trade unions which pressed for better pay, reduced hours of work and better working conditions. They would go on strike when employers refused their demands.

‐ By 1914, Canada was in a recession after 2 decades of rapid growth

‐ At this time, Canadians finally began to realize the toll that industrialization was taking on the environment

CANADA AND WORLD WAR I

‐ Summer of 1914 – 1918 (Armistice declared on the Western Front)

‐ Eastern Front = past Russia, Western Front = past France

‐ Propaganda was used to persuade people to support the war

CAUSES OF THE WAR

‐ June 28th, 1914 – Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Crown Prince of Austria‐Hungary) and his wife Sophie were shot by Gavrilo Princip (member of Serbian nationalist group, “the Black Hand”) while visiting Sarajevo.

‐ Nationalism: Europe was controlled by three weak and crumbling empires: The Austro‐Hungarian, the Russian and the Ottoman. Many countries resented being part of an empire and wanted independence. When Bosnia‐Herzegovina, for example. was taken over by Austria‐Hungary, Serbians were outraged.

‐ Alliances: To reduce vulnerability to attack, many countries formed alliances.

Triple Alliance AKA the Central Powers: Germany, Austria‐Hungary and Italy

Triple Entente AKA the Allies: France, Great Britain and Russia

– If any one country was attacked, other members of would immediately also become involved.

‐ Militarism: Countries in Europe had been rapidly building up their armies. Germany in particular kept expanding in an attempt to maintain the balance of power. It had the strongest arsenal of weapons in Europe but wanted to beat Great Britain in the naval sector.

– Both countries started to build large battleships called dreadnoughts and had huge fleets of warships.

‐ Imperialism: Many European countries had acquired colonies overseas and often challenged each other for rights to certain territories and resources.

THE DOMINO EFFECT

‐ Austria‐Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination of Franz Ferdinand

‐ Austria‐Hungary declared war on Serbia

‐ Russia, Serbia’s ally mobilized its troops and Germany, Austria‐Hungary’s ally did the same

‐ All the great powers had mobilized armies within weeks and were at war

‐ Britain declared war on Germany after it invaded Belgium

‐ It became the Triple Entente vs. the Triple Alliance, with many countries at war

CANADA’S ROLE

‐ Prime Minister at the time was Robert Borden (conservative)

‐ Canada became a political union in 1867, but Britain still controlled its foreign policy

‐ Most English speakers supported the war because they were patriotic towards G.B

‐ Wilfred Laurier (liberal) supported the war and said that Canadians were ready to help

‐ Many enthusiastic volunteers signed up (over 30,000) because they thought the war would be short and they would be home by Christmas

– Some enjoyed the idea of being a hero

– Others needed to escape financial hardships at home

– Women were encouraged to stay home and support men, but some became nurses and ambulance drivers.

– Minorities initially were not welcome, but they eventually overcame the discrimination and joined, though few were promoted

TRAINING

– Sam Hughes (British), the minister of militia set up a training centre in Valcartier, Québec

– 32 000 troops were sent after a few weeks of minimal training

– War brought Canadians together as they began to develop a national identity

– This army was called the Canadian Expeditionary Force (Corps Expeditionnaire Canadien), and fought for the most part independently from Britain

– Hughes was also in charge of the armament industry

– He created the Shell Committee and by 1917 was supplying 1/3 of Britain’s shells

– However, because he was a poor administrator, the Ministry of Militia became inefficient and confusing

– He began to manufacture weapons of poor quality and was more concerned with making money than quality.

– The Canadian Ross rifle tended to jam in rapid fire so Canadian troops would take British Lee Enfield rifles when they could.

– Hughes was dismissed in 1916, but was knighted before his dismissal

THE WAR MEASURES ACT (Loi des measures de guerre)

‐ Borden realized the government needed more control to meet the demands of war

‐ He introduced the War Measures Act (Loi des measures de guerre) which said the government could do anything necessary for the security of Canada

‐ Mail could be censored, they could intervene in the economy and habeas corpus (the right to a judge) was suspended

‐ Anyone deemed suspicious could be sent to jail or deported

‐ Immigrants from Germany and Austria‐Hungary had special identity cards and some were sent to internment camps

THE WAR ON LAND

‐ The Schlieffen Plan: The German plan to quickly invade Belgium, then France to capture Paris. They would then turn their attention towards Russia.

‐ They came close (35km from Paris by August 1914), but they were exhausted by the pace of the plan and were pushed back

‐ Germany then decided to dig a defensive line of trenches and the Allies followed suit

‐ A vast network of trenches was then built from the English Channel to the Swiss border

‐ No Man’s Land was the area between the trenches of both sides, comprised of corpses, barbed wire and mud

‐ By the Christmas of 1914, neither side could advance but neither could retreat either

‐ By 1914, new weapons were so advanced that charging was no longer a good strategy

‐ The machine gun was invented

‐ Planes were used to spy on enemies

‐ Tanks were invented in 1916 and were used to break through the barbed wire in front of trenches

‐ Many commanders didn’t realize that new weapons needed new strategies and over 3 years, hundreds of thousands of soldiers died in France and Belgium

IN THE TRENCHES

‐ Conditions were cold, damp, rainy, muddy, smelly and overrun by rats

‐ Many men developed Trench Foot, where feet would swell and turn black, often requiring amputation

‐ Injured men were often left to die in no man’s land because rescue was too dangerous

MAJOR CEF BATTLES OF WORLD WAR I

THE SECOND BATTLE OF YPRES

‐ April 22, 1915 and April 24th, 1915 –the French and Canadian troops were blinded , burned and killed by the chlorine gas (AKA mustard gas) used by the Germans

‐ Fought In Ypres, Belgium near Flanders’s Field

‐ Gas attack despite the fact that gas for military purposes was outlawed since 1907

‐ For a month, neither side gained advantage in the field of Flanders, but 6000 Canadians were killed wounded or captured

THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME

‐ July 1916, 1916 – British and French forces under General Douglas Haig launched a massive attack along the ridges near Somme River, France

‐ Haig insisted on using previous strategies, despite them being useless in trench warfare

‐ Waves of soldiers marched across open fields and were killed by German machine guns

‐ 85% of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment were killed/wounded in half an hour (over 700 men)

‐ Over a million casualties when the battle ended in November.

‐ Haig claimed victory. 24 000 Canadians died.

THE BATTLE OF VIMY RIDGE

‐ Germans controlled Vimy Ridge (northern France) since their first offensive in 1914

‐ French had tried 3 times to regain Vimy, but failed

‐ In late 1916, Canadians led by General Julian Byng were chosen to lead new assault

‐ Byng trained the troops thoroughly and developed strategies

‐ From the west side of the ridge, Canadians bombarded Germans for over a month while army engineers made tunnels to move troops secretly to forward positions

‐ At zero hour April 9th, 1917, Easter Monday, the troops moved into position

‐ Canadians followed the plan of attack and took their first objectives

‐ April 10th, they captured Hill 145, the highest point of the ridge

‐ April 12th, they took “the pimple”, the last German position

‐ Great victory, taken more prisoners and more artillery than any other British offensive

‐ Over 3500 men were killed and 7000 wounded

‐ The victory is a great source of pride in Canadian history

PASSCHENDAELE

‐ In 1917, Canadians were called to retake Passchendaele Ridge in Belgium

‐ Byng was promoted because of Vimy and his replacement was General Arthur Currie

(Canadian real estate dealer)

‐ Currie still took orders from Haig, who wanted to recapture Passchendaele

‐ Currie warned that it was a bad idea and casualties would be high, but Haig ignored him

‐ The Allies won, but the victory cost over 15 000 Canadian lives and half a million soldiers

from both sides

THE ROLE OF WOMEN

‐ Almost 2500 women joined the medical and field ambulance corps

‐ Nurses were called the Bluebirds because of their uniforms

‐ Many died as a result of fire, bombs and gas

‐ Some became volunteers, but the greatest change was their contribution to the labour force

‐ Before 1914, women were domestic servants and workers in the clothing/food industry

‐ Women became hired for all kinds of work during the war

WAR IN THE AIR

‐ At the start, pilots flew alone in biplanes to spy on enemy troop movements

‐ The pilots soon became armed however with pistols and rifles

‐ Within a year, planes began to have machine guns mounted to the planes

‐ After shooting down 5 enemy aircrafts, a pilot became an ace

‐ Aces would go back home to fundraise and recruit

‐ Life as a pilot was exciting, but dangerous (more than 50 000 pilots were killed from 1914‐1918)

‐ Canada did not have its own air force. Pilots joined the British RFC.

WAR AT SEA

‐ Germans could not match the British navy, but they had submarines aka U‐boats

‐ Submarines became equipped with torpedoes, which destroyed war/merchant ships

‐ Lusitania: In 1915, a German submarine sank a British passenger liner called the Lusitania, killing 1200 passengers, mostly Canadians and Americans.

‐ In 1917, Germany announced that submarines would sink any ship within the war zone around Britain

‐ Allies eventually developed a convoy system and underwater listening device that helped them locate and destroy submarines

‐ Canada had two warships, the Rainbow (patrolled the West Coast) and the Niobe (in Halifax)

‐ Halifax = ideal location to refuel and repair Allied warships as it was protected by the Niobe

‐ Canada’s merchant ships provided food and munitions to Britain. Many merchant seamen died while crossing the Atlantic.

THE WAR AT HOME

‐ The war was good for the economy. By 1916, the economy was booming.

‐ Borden replaced the Shell Committee with the Imperial Munitions Board, and factories were built to construct ships, airplanes and shells

‐ Hundreds of thousands of Canadians were employed in these factories

‐ Workers eventually became frustrated by the low wages

PAYING FOR THE WAR

‐ Despite the booming economy, war was expensive and the government couldn’t pay for its contribution to the war

‐ Victory bonds: the government sold victory bonds to appeal to patriots. After the war was over, the citizens were promised they would get their money back, plus interest.

‐ Income tax: Originally supposed to be temporary well off individuals paid 3% of their income.

‐ Borrowing from other countries: Victory bonds and income tax were not enough, and by 1918, the Canadian government deep in debt was forced to borrow money from other countries, especially the US.

WOMEN’S RIGHT TO VOTE

‐ 1915 ‐ Women in Manitoba got the right to vote

‐ 1915 ‐ Alberta and Saskatchewan followed suit later during the year

‐ 1917 – Women in Ontario and British Columbia got the right to vote in provincial elections

‐ 1918 – All Canadian women have the right to vote in federal elections

THE HALIFAX DISASTER

‐ December 6th, 1917 – The Mont Blanc (a French vessel), carrying more than 2500t of

dynamite was accidentally hit by another ship. The resulting explosion devastated much of the city and harbor.

‐ 2000‐3000 people were killed and more than 10 000 injured.

CONSCRIPTION

‐ Borden had promised there would be no conscription, but during his visit to Britain, David Lloyd George, the British prime minister convinced Borden that the war needed to be won

‐ When he went back to Canada, Borden introduced the Military Service Act (a bill that made service compulsory)

‐ The Act had exceptions for the disabled, those with essential jobs/special skills and those who didn’t believe in war because of religion

‐ Recruitment rates were uneven, the lowest levels being in Quebec

‐ French‐Canadians felt no patriotic connection to Britain or France and therefore felt like the Act was forcing them to fight in a war that wasn’t theirs

‐ Farmers also opposed conscription, especially in the Prairies. They needed to work on farms.

‐ Industrial workers felt that they were already playing a part in the war

‐ Labourers led the opposition to conscription.

‐ Labour leader Ginger Goodwin hid from authorities after he was drafted. He was eventually tracked down and killed by a police constable.

CANADA’S MOST DIVISIVE ELECTION

‐ Borden decided to call an election over the issue of conscription

‐ He had passed two pieces of legislation that were designed to ensure his re‐election

The Military Voters Act – allowing men/women overseas to vote

The Wartime Elections Act – allowing all women directly related to servicemen to vote. The act also cancelled vote for all immigrants and objectors who came from enemy countries in the last 14 years.

‐ Borden invited opposition Liberals who supported conscription to join him in a Union Government

‐ These Liberals were offered Cabinet positions to join him

‐ Wilfred Laurier however was opposed to conscription

‐ Liberals lost a lot of support because of Laurier’s view

‐ The Union Government won the election with support from the armed forces

‐ Conscription controversy however did not subside. In Quebec, French Canadians marched the streets. On Easter Weekend of 1918, at an anti‐conscription riot, 4 demonstrators were shot dead and 10 were wounded.

‐ Conscription went on with 130 000 enlisted, but only 25 000 reaching France before the war ended. Out of 404 000 men who were called, 380 500 applied for exemptions.

COLLAPSE OF THE CENTRAL POWERS

‐ 1) March of 1917 – Czar Nicolas of Russia was forced to abdicate and a provisional Russian government was formed.

‐ 2) April 2nd 1917 – The US declared war on Germany, angered by the sinking of neutral ships such as the Lusitania.

‐ In October 1917, Russian revolutionaries called Bolsheviks overthrew the provisional government and signed a peace treaty with Germany

‐ In a last desperate offensive, the Germans went and struck the weak points in the enemy lines. They took back Ypres, the Somme, Passchendaele and everything but Vimy Ridge

‐ By the time they were only 75 km from Paris, they had exhausted themselves: without fresh troops, food or supplies and could not continue.

‐ The Hundred Days – the final months of the war where Canadians led by Currie broke through German lines and won important battles at Arras, Cambrai and Valenciennes. The German Kaiser fled to Holland.

‐ The Armistice was signed in a railway car on November 11th, 1918 at 11am.

CANADA ON THE WORLD STAGE

‐ Paris Peace Conference: After the signing of the armistice, the Allies and Germany met in Paris to discuss a peace agreement. Borden obtained a seat for Canada.

‐ The Treaty of Versailles: The document that set out the terms of the peace agreement in 1919. Borden got to sign it. It also created the League of Nations. American president Woodrow Wilson had laid out a 14 point plan earlier in 1918 that emphasized forgiveness, but the French/Belgian leaders wanted compensation from Germany. They decided that:

– Germany would have to accept responsibility for causing the war (guilt clause)

– Germany had to pay 30 billion dollars worth of reparations

– The European map would be redrawn, reducing Germany’s territory

– The German army would be restricted to 100 000 men, with no more U‐boats or air force

‐ Germany could not pay as with all other European countries, it was in ruins

‐ League of Nations: Created after the war by the Treaty of Versailles. Canada was a member and it was based on the principle of collective security (if one member came under attack, all members would come to help). The League could punish an aggressive nation through economic sanctions which restricted trade with the nation. The Americans refused to join as Woodrow Wilson had a stroke that left him half paralyzed, making him no longer able to campaign for joining the League.

‐ After the war, people went hungry all across Europe. The Spanish Flu swept across the continent, killing over 22 million (more than the war). 50 000 Canadians died and schools were closed for months.

CANADA AND THE TWENTIES

‐ A decade of prosperity, fun and wild living

‐ “The Jazz Age”, bold new music, shocking fashions and improvement of life

‐ Soldiers returned to Canada with no pensions, no special medical services and few jobs

WORKERS RESPOND

‐ Workers Wanted higher wages, better conditions and the right to join unions

‐ This resulted in many strikes

‐ British Empire Steel Corporation – For four years, the union and the steel corporation confronted each other in ‘Labour Wars’. The strikes turned violent, and the company called in police/troops to break them up.

‐ Western leaders were more socialist, thinking citizens should have more involvement, influenced by the communist Bolsheviks in Russia

‐ March 1919 – The Western Labor Conference – Union leaders founded the One Big Union, which represented all Canadian workers, aiming to help workers gain control

THE WINNIPEG GENERAL STRIKE

‐ Lasted 43 days

‐ May 1919, Winnipeg’s metal and building workers walked off their jobs

‐ They wanted higher wages, a shorter working week and the right to collective bargaining

‐ Collective bargaining: Allows the union leadership to negotiate with employers on behalf of union members

‐ 30 000 people went on strike, even though half weren’t unionized

‐ Citizen’s Committee of One Thousand: Formed by business leaders, politicians and industrialists. They saw the union leaders as part of a communist conspiracy to overthrow the government.

‐ The Federal government feared that this strike would influence other cities and therefore intervened

‐ They amended The Immigration Act so they could deport foreign‐born union leaders

‐ The mayor of Winnipeg appointed special police, fired civic workers and had leaders arrested

‐ Bloody Saturday: On June 21st, strikers held a parade to protest the mayor’s actions. The Royal North West Mounted Police/special police charged into the crowd with clubs and pistols, making the affair violent. One striker died, 30 were injured and many others arrested. The strikers then returned to work.

‐ The Royal Commission examined the strike and found the grievances to be valid

‐ J.S Woodsworth, who was arrested during the strike went on to found the Cooperative

Commonwealth Federation (CCF) which later became the New Democratic Party (NDP)

CHALLENGES TO FEDERALISM

Regionalism: the concern of local problems within a region, which increased after the war.

Maritime Rights Movement: A brief movement formed by prominent business and political leaders, urging all politicians seeking office to make policies that benefit the Maritimes. This movement died quickly without accomplishing much.

National Policy: In place since 1878, placing tariffs and duties on foreign goods imported into Canada. This was implemented so that Canadians bought more Canadian goods, strengthening the economy. Farmers were frustrated as they felt alienated by this policy. Farmers wanted free trade (no more tariffs, allowing farmers to buy cheaper, US‐made machinery).

‐ United Farmers’ Parties: Farmers made their own political parties. By the early 1920s, Ontario and the prairies elected these parties which formed the government.

‐ Federal Progressive Party – Created by Thomas Crerar, a former minister of agriculture in Borden’s union government. It wanted a new National Policy based on free trade and public ownership of railways. They contested the 1921 election.

CANADIANS CHOOSE A NEW GOVERNMENT

‐ 1919 – William Lyon Mackenzie King was chosen to lead the Liberals

‐ William Lyon Mackenzie King: Reputation of a reformer, an authority on social and economic issues. He was conciliatory, always looking for the middle path that offended the least amount of people.

‐ Arthur Meighen: chosen to replace Borden as the leader of the Conservatives. He was a brilliant debater and a long‐standing member of parliament. He believed in principles over compromise and didn’t care who he offended.

‐ King and Meighen hated each other; had different approaches to politics. (King with not wanting to offend people and Meighen not caring if he did)

‐ In the 1921 Federal Election, Liberals had 117 members, Conservatives had 50 members and the Progressives had 64.

‐ The Liberals had elected a minority government (needed the support of opposition members to pass legislation).

‐ The Progressive Party didn’t last long; but brought along changes:

o The Old Pension Act: passed in 1927, granting basic pension ($240 per year) to Canadian citizens.

CANADA’S GROWING INDEPENDENCE

‐ Borden had raised Canada’s profile internationally and Mackenzie King continued to push for more independence

‐ 1922 – King refused to support Britain when it wanted to invade Turkey

‐ 1923 – King insisted that he be allowed to sign an international treaty without a British representative signing it

‐ King‐Byng Crisis: After the 1925 election, the Liberals had 101 seats, the Conservatives, 116 and the Progressives, 24. The Liberals therefore needed the help of the Progressives to stay in power, but they lost their support as a result of a liquor‐smuggling scandal in the Customs Department. The Conservatives called for a motion of censure (vote of strong disapproval) against King’s government. If it had passed, King would need to resign as prime minister.

King asked Governor General Byng to call another election, but Byng refused saying that the censure needed to be completed first. King was furious and Byng was eventually forced to call an election. King appealed to nationalism during his campaign and won.

‐ The Balfour Report: At the Imperial Conference of 1926, the dominions of the English Empire requested formal recognition of autonomy (freedom to govern themselves). A special committee under Lord Balfour (respected British politician) examined the request.

They published the Balfour Report, which supported the dominions.

‐ The Statute of Westminster : Passed in 1931 by the British government, making the recommendations of the Balfour Report law. (The report supported dominion autonomy)

The Statute created the British Commonwealth, making Canada equal to Britain.

‐ Canada could now make its own laws, however there were two restrictions.

‐ The British North America Act: AKA the Canadian constitution. It had to stay in Britain because the Canadian governments couldn’t agree on an amending formula (the procedure for changing the act).

‐ The judicial court of appeal for Canadians resided in Britain until 1949.

THE ECONOMY IMPROVES

‐ the beginning of the 20s = economic depression

‐ it began to improve however in the middle of the decade

‐ Wheat was an important export but there was also growth in the exploitation of resources

THE UNITED STATES INVESTS IN CANADA’S ECONOMY

‐ The US became the world’s economic leader after the war

‐ US companies invested in pulp and paper mills/mines across the country. The majority of these resources were exported to the US.

‐ Branch plants: businesses owned and controlled by companies in the US but operated in Canada. Investors set these up instead of lending money to the companies like Britain did.

‐ By the end of the 1920s, the Canadian auto‐industry was taken over by the “Big Three” US automobile companies (GM, Ford and Chrystler).

‐ The US enriched the Canadian economy by extracting raw materials (primary industries)

‐ However, these materials were taken to the US for manufacturing (secondary industries)

PROHIBITION

‐ During World War I, the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and other organizations succeeded in bringing upon Prohibition, banning the manufacture and sale of alcoholic drinks in Canada

‐ Those with money could still get it (doctor prescription as tonic, or illegal bathtub gin)

‐ By 1920, governments admitted that Prohibition was not working. It was disliked by most.

‐ After 1921, most provincial governments decided to regulate alcohol instead. After a series of plebiscites (votes on a public issue), Canadians adopted government controlled liquor stores.

‐ Prohibition continued in the US until 1933.

‐ Canadians could now supply the US with illegal liquor (called rum‐running), which was very profitable. They smuggled alcohol across the border.

URBANIZATION

‐ The growth in the manufacturing sector brought more people to cities in search of work

‐ This was called urbanization. By 1931, city dwellers outnumbered the rural population.

‐ The modern Canadian city began to form: businesses clustered in the city center, slums became a bigger problem, pollution got worse and rich families moved to residential areas

THE ROLE OF WOMEN

‐ 1920S = A new era for women in Canada

‐ In the 1921 federal election, only 5 women ran for office and only one won her seat

‐ Agnes Macphail: the only woman in the House of Commons until 1935

‐ Women were still expected to be wives and mothers. Because of new technology such as the vacuum and washing machine, houses were expected to be cleaner. Married women were supposed to stay at home and few women became doctors or lawyers.

‐ The Persons Case of 1929 – Emily Murphy, a well known suffragist was appointed a head magistrate (judicial officer) in Alberta. Under the British North American Act however, only “persons” could hold this title and women were not seen as “persons” under the law. The Supreme Court of Alberta said she could be a judge, but the matter didn’t stop there. Emily Murphy and 4 other women challenged Prime Minister Mackenzie King to appoint a woman senator and to clarify the definition of “persons”. They were known as “The Famous Five”.

They appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain and on October 18, 1929, women were officially considered “persons”.

‐ The first female senator was appointed in 1930, Cairine Wilson (Liberal).

A NEW PROSPERITY

‐ Roaring Twenties: The improved economy caused Canadians to participate in a style of life called the Roaring Twenties. People bought all sorts of technology and went to the movies and fads from the US quickly spread. New dances like the Shimmy and Turkey Trot were introduced and Canadian fashion was also influenced by the US.

‐ Automobiles: Cars began to change the landscape of the country.

‐ Assembly Lines: The first assembly line was created in 1913 by Henry Ford. Cars could then be manufactured cheaply and quickly.

‐ The Trans‐Canada Highway – In 1920, Canada only had 1600km of top‐rated highways, and this figure would increase 10x by the end of the decade. The Canadian Shield and Rocky Mountains were physical barriers that delayed the construction of the Trans‐Canada Highway and so most of the better roads ran south to the US. BC soon started to drive on the right side of the road like the Americans and not on the left like the British.

‐ Aviation: Aviation continued to expand as many veteran pilots flew geologists and prospectors into remote areas to explore mining opportunities.

‐ Telephone: In the 1920s, the phone became a standard household appliance and phone lines were shared by many neighbors which allowed anyone to eavesdrop on others’ conversations.

‐ Radio: The use of radio began to break down the isolation of far away communities. By the end of the 20s, nearly 300 000 Canadians were tuning into US stations for entertainment.

‐ Movies: Soon enough, movies came in to compete with radios. Talking movies arrived in 1927.

‐ The Group of Seven – A group of painters that held an exhibition in Toronto in 1920. They broke with traditional Canadian art and painted the rugged landscapes of the country.

‐ Emily Carr: The best known painter of the Pacific Coast (in Victoria). She was influenced by the Group of Seven.

‐ Baseball: Baseball became important to Canadians who listened to games on the radio.

Boxing, rugby, curling and golf were also popular.

‐ Hockey: Became popular when sportswriter Foster Hewitt made the first hockey radio broadcast in 1923.

DISCRIMINATION

Aboriginal Nations: They were still not classified as “persons” under the law.

‐ They still couldn’t vote in provincial/federal elections

‐ Got the right to vote in provincial elections in 1949.

‐ They got the right to vote in federal elections in 1960.

‐ They were faced with discrimination and hostility. Residential schools were traumatizing for

Aboriginal children and so they had trouble finding work.

‐ In the early 1920s, the Aboriginal people in BC challenged the federal and provincial

governments on three issues: the pot‐lach ceremony, cut‐off lands and Aboriginal title.

‐ Potlach: an important cultural ceremony among certain people of the Pacific. It recorded

births, deaths, marriages and other events. It was carefully planned and established status

in tribes. The government saw it as an obstacle to assimilation and it was forbidden in 1884.

‐ Aboriginal title: Also known as land claims. Only in BC did some First Nations have

negotiated land treaties.

‐ Cut‐Off Lands: Large tracts of land that had been set aside for the Aboriginal people that the

government had taken without the consent of the Aboriginals.

‐ Joe Capilano: a chief of the Squamish people who went to London in 1906 to present a land

claim petition to King Edward VII. Years later, the Allied Tribes of British Columbia, an

organization made of several tribes, appealed the government’s actions. They said the

removal of the land was contrary to the Indian Act (regulated relations between the federal

government and the Aboriginals). The government responded by changing the Indian Act so

that they no longer needed Aboriginal consent to transfer reserve lands.

‐ Under Andrew Paull and Peter Kelly, the Allied Tribes of British Columbia continued to

petition the government to begin treaty negotiations. In 1927, they went to the House of

Commons and Senate, but the Department of Indian Affairs defended the government’s

actions. They then amended the Indian Act again to forbid the raising or acceptance of

money to pursue land claims.

African‐Canadians: ‐ Discrimination against Africans had been blatant

‐ The Education Act: In Nova Scotia, The Education Act of 1918 provided separate schools for

“Blacks” and Europeans. It remained this way until 1954.

‐ In 1921, the Superior Court of Quebec ruled in favour of racially segregated seating in

Montreal theatres.

‐ In 1929, a black delegation to a World Baptist Convention in Toronto was denied a hotel

room.

‐ In 1924, the Edmonton City Council refused to ban African‐Canadians from public parks.

‐ In 1919, the Brotherhood of Railway Workers accepted black porters as members, the first

Canadian union to abolish racial discrimination.

Immigrants: ‐ The Canadian government adopted immigration restrictions, with preference to the US

and Great Britain

‐ Many Canadians liked immigrants because they worked for low wages

‐ Labour groups saw immigrants as unfair competition who stole their jobs

‐ Asian immigrants: In 1923, the government passed a law that excluded Chinese immigrants

to Canada until 1947. The Canada‐Japan Agreement of 1922 restricted immigration from

Japan to 150 servants and labourers a year.

‐ In 1925, once the economy improved, the government relaxed restrictions on immigration.

They wanted to increase the population so that businesses would have a larger market.

THE STOCK MARKET CRASH

‐ The North American economy was booming in the late 20s

‐ October 29th, 1929 – The New York Stock Exchange collapsed; all the prices of stocks fell

quickly and led to the Great Depression.

THE THIRTIES: A DECADE OF DESPAIR

FALLING OFF THE ECONOMIC EDGE

‐ During the economic boom, shares in the stock exchange were being exchanged feverishly

‐ Buying on margin: Buying shares with only a 10% down payment, assuming the prices of the

stocks would increase and it would pay for itself. This was very common in the 20s.

‐ Because stocks were being bought so much, the prices were driven up beyond their real

value. When investors started selling in order to cash in on profits, others did the same and

the value of stocks fell dramatically.

‐ October 29th, 1929 – The New York Stock Market Collapse – This was followed by the

Toronto and Montreal stock markets. People went bankrupt in a single day.

LEADING UP TO THE DEPRESSION

‐ The decrease in the price of wheat on the world market: More wheat was being produced

than sold. Canada/US depended on foreign markets, but many countries started to produce

their own wheat. As sales dropped, farmer salaries also dropped and many were unable to

pay their mortgages and loan payments.

‐ Overproduction: Other industries were producing more goods than were being sold. They

began to cut back on production, which led to layoffs in factories.

‐ High tariffs on foreign goods: The US implemented high tariffs on foreign goods, aiming

improve the US’s own economy. This was a form of protectionism. These tariffs slowed

down world trade.

‐ Germany’s inability to meet its financial obligations: According to the Treaty of Versailles,

Germany was required to pay reparations for the war, however because its economy was in

ruins post‐war, it was not able to do so. France and Great Britain had been counting on

Germany so that they could repay their own debts to the US. However, because Germany

could not pay, the US could not get their money back.

CANADA AND THE DEPRESSION

‐ The Depression showcased Canada’s dependency on the export of primary resources

‐ Wheat from the prairies and newsprint from BC, Ontario and Quebec made Canada

vulnerable to changes in world markets

‐ As world demand decreased, many people in Canada lost their jobs

‐ Without money, they could not consume or buy goods

‐ Workers in the factories that produced these goods also lost their jobs because of the lack

of demand. In this way, millions of people lost their jobs.

‐ The US had become Canada’s greatest trading partner and so when the US economy

crashed, we also felt the effects.

DESPERATE YEARS

‐ Factory workers and business owners lost their jobs and could no longer afford rent

‐ Pogey: Government relief payments to those who had no other source of income. Many

existed on only this, however those that received had to publicly declare financial failure.

‐ Private charities also helped those in need, with soup kitchens feeding the hungry.

‐ The country was filled with unemployed men drifting place to place hopping freight treins in

search of work.

DROUGHT ON THE PRAIRIES

‐ The Prairies had been hit by a disastrous drought that began in 1928, lasting almost 8 years.

‐ There were constant dust storms and millions of fertile topsoil blew away

‐ A plague of grasshoppers descended on the prairies as well, stalling trains, clogging car

radiators, etc.

‐ The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration Act: Passed in 1935 by the federal

government to help farmers build irrigation systems and reservoirs.

THE DISADVANTAGED

‐ For women, there were few jobs other than domestic work paying just a few dollars a week

‐ Aboriginal families on relief got only 5 dollars a month and were expected to live off the

land despite the fact that conditions on reserves were too poor to do so

‐ Immigrants were viewed with hostility and were denied jobs

‐ Jews were targeted in particular and many professions would be closed to them

‐ In 1931, the government put a stop to immigration

RESPONDING TO THE DEPRESSION

‐ Prime Minister Mackenzie King was unprepared to deal with a crisis like the Depression

‐ He believed that the situation was temporary and thought that social aid was the

responsibility of municipal and provincial governments

‐ This attitude lost him the election of 1930, where he lost to R.B. Bennett (conservative)

BENNETT’S RESPONSE

‐ Bennett was not in favour of government relief either

‐ Nevertheless, he gave provinces $20 million for work‐creation programs, though the

economy did not improve

‐ His plan was to raise tariffs by 50% to protect Canada’s businesses (protectionism), but this

only built trade barriers against Canada

‐ As the situation got worse, Bennett became a target for anger and frustration

o A deserted farm = called a “Bennett barnyard”, a newspaper = a “Bennett blanket”

‐ Bennett was afraid the jobless middle class would become influenced by communism and in

1931, he banned the Communist Party and arrested its leaders

‐ The federal government also decided to create work camps for unemployed, single men

WORK CAMPS

‐ Were located deep in the woods to isolate the men

‐ They worked on projects such as building roads and clearing land

‐ They were paid 20 cents a day and given room/board, though the conditions were terrible

THE ON‐TO‐OTTAWA TREK

‐ In 1935, over a thousand men left the work camps to protest camp conditions

‐ Under the Relief Camp Workers Union, they began to take their complaints to Ottawa

‐ They rode through Prairies, picking up supporters along the way

‐ The RCMP stopped them in Regina, allowing only the leaders to proceed to Ottawa

‐ Bennett however dismissed them immediately and attacked them as radicals/troublemakers

‐ In Regina, the RCMP was told to clear the trekkers from the stadium in which they were

held. They resisted for 2 hours. One man died and many were injured, with 130 arrested.

POLITICS OF PROTEST

‐ Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) – Formed in the West in 1932. It appealed to

Canadians including farmers, labourers and intellectuals. Their leader was J.S Woodsworth.

A socialist party, it supported social programs to assist people in need of money. They urged

the government to spend money on public works to create employment.

‐ Social Credit Party: Led by William Aberhart and won the 1935 election in Alberta. Aberhart

was a charismatic preacher and high school teacher from Calgary. He thought that

capitalism was a wasteful economic system and thought that the government should put

money into the economy so that people could spend it. He promised each citizen a basic

dividend of 25 dollars a month, but social credit was disallowed by the Supreme Court. The

party remained in power however until 1971 under Ernest Manning and Harry Strom.

PROVINCIAL SOLUTIONS

‐ Ontario: the Liberals came back to power in 1934, the first time in 29 years. Led by Mitch

Hepburn who did little for the unemployed. He also suppressed strikes.

‐ Quebec: the Union Nationale (a nationalistic French‐Canadian party) came to power in

1936. Led by Maurice Duplessis who did little to improve conditions in Quebec.

‐ BC: Liberal Dufferin Pattullo was elected in 1933 and introduced reforms to shorten the

work day and increase wages/relief payments. Public work projects were launched (Fraser

River Bridge in New Westminster) and a new Vancouver City Hall. The projects were

shortlived as the federal government said it was their responsibility to introduce programs.

A CHANGE IN GOVERNMENT

‐ By 1935, voters were fed up with Bennett and returned Mackenzie King to power

‐ Despite being encouraged to spend millions on job creation, he only spent of a fraction of

that

INCREASE TENSION IN THE FEDERAL‐PROVINCIAL RELATIONS

‐ In 1937, King created the Rowell‐Sirois Commission, another Royal Commission

‐ The unemployment crisis created tension between federal and provincial governments

‐ The Rowell‐Sirois Commission recommended equalization payments (giving money to

poorer provinces to ensure the same level of services)

‐ The economy started to improve however and as World War II began, most of the

recommendations of the Commission were pushed aside for later

DISTRACTIONS FROM DESPAIR

‐ Movies, magazines and radio were still popular

‐ CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation): Created in 1936 by the federal government so

that Canada could have a public radio service.

‐ The Dionne quintuplets – Born in 1934 in Corbeil, Ontario, they became international

sensations and were taken into the care of the Ontario government. They were put on

display and the government earned millions of dollars from them.

THE RISE OF DICTATORSHIPS

‐ Many European economies did not recover from World War I, Depression worsened it

‐ Some believed that communism was the only solution to social suffering

‐ Others believed a strong military was needed to restore order

‐ Soviet Union: Josef Stalin took over as the leader of the Communist Party after the death of

Lenin, the leader of the 1917 revolution. He was a ruthless and cruel leader whose

agricultural policies killed millions of Soviet workers. The Union had become a totalitarian

state, with every aspect of people’s lives controlled by the government.

‐ Italy: Benito Mussolini (Il Duce) came into power in 1922. He created a fascist government.

Fascism: opposed to democracy, relying on military/police power to maintain control. They

controlled all media and used propaganda to promote the ideals of the states.

GERMANY POST‐WAR

‐ After the war, Germans were unhappy with the Treaty of Versailles

‐ They did not like being blamed

‐ The economy had been ruined and the German currency declined. To control German

inflation, Britain, France and the US agreed to give them better terms for the reparation

payments.

HITLER COMES TO POWER

‐ Hitler had been gaining support since 1923 by criticizing the weak government

‐ Hitler and his Nazi Party (influenced by Fascist Italy), promised that they had the solution to

bring Germany out of the Depression

‐ January 1933: Hitler became the Chancellor Germany and by March, his party had won

control of the parliament

‐ The Nazi government stopped reparation payments and began to expand its armed forces

‐ Hitler poured money into public projects and the economy began to improve

‐ Nazis abolished all other political parties and banned trade unions

‐ Hitler became known as der Fuhrer (the Leader), a ruthless dictator

‐ The Nazis were racist, thinking Germans were the “master race”, composed to Aryans, a

pure race of Northern Europeans

‐ Nazis persecuted non‐Aryans such as Jews, homosexuals, Gypsies and those who disabilities

‐ They set up concentration camps to imprison and isolate them from German society

ON THE ROAD TO WAR

‐ In 1931, Japan invaded the Chinese “Machuria”. China complained to the League of Nations

who tried to negotiate with Japan, however Japan simply withdrew from the League.

‐ Spring 1935, Italy attacked Abyssinia (now known as Ethiopia) and the League of Nations

imposed trade sanctions against Italy.

GERMANY ON THE OFFENSIVE

‐ In 1936, Hitler ordered his troops into Rhineland, going unpunished by the League of

Nations

‐ Spanish Civil War: 1936 – General Francisco Franco and his fascist followers led an attack on

the Spanish government. This resulted in a civil war between the socialist government and

the rebel forces of Franco. Franco had support from Hitler and Mussolini and so he won the

war and became ruler of Spain.

THE POLICY OF APPEASEMENT

‐ Noone was willing to fight another war so they were willing to tolerate Hitler’s actions to

maintain peace. This only encouraged him further.

‐ In March 1938, Hitler invaded Austria and then demanded to take over the Sudetenland (the

German speaking region in Czechoslovakia). In September 1938, at a conference in Munich,

Britain and France agreed to this and Hitler pledged it would be his last territorial claim.

‐ March 1939 – Hitler took over the rest of Czechoslovakia despite his pledge

‐ August 1939 – Hitler made a pact with Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union. They vowed to not

fight each other in the case of war and agreed to share Poland between the two of them.

‐ September 1, 1939 – Germany invaded Poland, wanting to take back an area that had been

taken away in the Treaty of Versailles.

‐ Britain and France ordered Germany out of Poland by September 3rd, 1939. Germany

ignored this deadline and so the world became entangled in a new conflict.

CANADA’S RESPONSE TO GROWING TENSIONS

‐ Throughout the 30s, Canada remained isolationists (uninterested in foreign affairs)

‐ In 1937, Mackenzie King went to Germany himself and thought Hitler had pleasant, no

warlike intentions. He therefore did not see why Canada should become involved.

‐ The Secretary of State, Pierre Rinfret and Liberal Cabinet member, Thomas Crerar were both

anti‐Semitic

‐ The St. Louis: an ocean liner with over 900 Jewish refugees on board that arrived in Canada

in 1939. They were refused permission to dock and returned to Europe, where many of the

passengers died in concentration camps.

CANADA AND WORLD WAR II

CANADA DECLARES WAR

‐ In 1938, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain thought he had avoided war by signing

the Munich Agreement (giving Hitler part of Czechoslovakia as his final conquest)

‐ Hitler ignored the terms and took over the rest of Czechoslovakia; war seemed inevitable

‐ In May, King George VI and Queen Elizabeth of Britain came to visit, building strong ties

between Canada and Britain

‐ Prime Minister King did not want to get involved in another war

‐ September 8, 1939 – After Britain and France declared war on Germany, King decided to call

a special session of Parliament to decide Canada’s response.

‐ Only the CCF was against war, and so on September 10, Canada declared war on Germany

MOBILIZING CANADA’S RESOURCE

‐ Canada was not prepared for war

‐ The population was less enthusiastic, but nevertheless they still got 58 330 volunteers

‐ Aboriginals volunteered at the highest percentage than any other group in Canada

‐ African‐Canadians were originally rejected however they were later accepted

‐ Some wanted the private’s pay of $1.30 a day while others felt tries to Britain

‐ First troops went out from Halifax on December 10, 1939

THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AIR TRAINING PLAN

‐ The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan: in December 1939, Canada agreed to

host/administer a training plan led by British instructors who would train pilots and other

flight personnel. Air fields were built in the prairies and the program was a major Canadian

contribution to the war effort. The Plan trained over 130 000 pilots, navigators, flight

engineers and ground staff.

TOTAL WAR

‐ In April 1940, the government established the Department of Munitions and Supplies, with

C.D. Howe as its minister

‐ Howe could do whatever he wanted. He was direct, impatient and convinced leaders to

manufacture goods they’d never handled before. If the private sector could not do it, he

created Crown corporations to do the job.

‐ Even farmers were told to produce more wheat and other foods

‐ Policy of total war: Canadians willing to do whatever it took to defeat the enemy.

THE WAR IN EUROPE

‐ The Allies: Britain, France, Commonwealth

‐ The Axis: Italy, Germany and Japan

‐ Phoney War: Allied troops were stationed along France’s border with Germany, where they

waited for Germany’s next move. They waited seven months and nothing happened.

‐ April 1940: Germany renewed its blitzkrieg (“lightening war”) and attacked Norway and

Denmark

‐ Blitzkrieg: Powerful war tactic used by the Germans. It had surprise attacks with lightning

speed. German tanks (panzers) would crash through enemy lines, driving as far as they could

while war planes ripped through the sky, bombing the enemy below. Soldiers would also

parachute into enemy territory and destroy communication/transportation links.

EVACUATION OF DUNKIRK

‐ It took Germany hours to conquer Denmark and 2 months to subdue Norway

‐ May 10 – the German armed forces started to invade the Netherlands

‐ It went through Belgium quickly, then into France

‐ The Allies were soon surrounded in the French port of Dunkirk and they had to escape

before the Germans captured the town

‐ They attempted an evacuation by sea, and the British sent every boat capable of navigating

the English Channel to Dunkirk

‐ Evacuation began on May 26

‐ Two days later, the German Luftwaffe (air force) bombed the port, making escape more

difficult

‐ Evacuation ended on June 4th, bringing over 340 000 Allied soldiers to Britain

‐ The German Army continued to sweep through France and on June 22, 1940, France

surrendered. Britain and the Commonwealth were alone against Germany.

THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN

‐ Operation Sea Lion: the invasion of Britain, Hitler’s next goal after bombing Dunkirk.

‐ Germany first wanted to destroy Britain’s air power.

‐ July 10th, 1940 – Luftwaffe started a bombing campaign aimed at harbours in England.

‐ By September, they were bombing civilians.

‐ The Blitz: The name given to the German raids where they bombed London and other cities

for 50 consecutive nights.

‐ They were still unable to defeat the British air force however. The British had a radar system

that warned them of oncoming Germans. They also had Spitfires and Hurricanes, fighter

planes that were effective defense planes.

‐ Eventually, the British air force became more successful in shooting down German bombers

and in May 1941, Hitler gave up on his plan to invade Britain

‐ More than 23 000 people were killed in the Blitz

THE WAR SPREADS

‐ Operation Barbarossa: Hitler’s next plan after the Battle of Britain to invade the USSR.

‐ Despite his peace agreement with the USSR, Hitler wanted to complete his German Empire.

‐ When the Soviet Union took over part of the Balkans in 1940, Hitler became suspicious and

decided to invade right away.

‐ The Soviets were surprised and by autumn the Germans reached the outskirts of Moscow

and Leningrad (now St. Petersburg).

‐ The Germans were not equipped for the Soviet winter, soon losing their advantage

‐ In 1942, Germany launched another offensive and got as far as Stalingrad, but were stopped

by winter once again.

‐ After suffering 300 000 casualties, the Germans surrendered in 1943

‐ The Soviet Union seized this chance to regain much of its lost territory.

‐ By early 1944, the Soviets were advancing into Eastern Europe towards Germany.

THE WAR IN THE PACIFIC

‐ Japan was an Axis member, but was not involved in the war in Europe

‐ In 1941, it was prepared to invade US and European colonies in Asia which were rich in

resources such as oil, rubber and tin

‐ Pearl Harbour: On December 7th, 1941, Japanese planes bombed the US naval base in Pearl

Harbour, on the island of Hawaii, destroying hal the fleet.

‐ They went on to bomb the Philippines.

‐ The next day, the US declared war on Japan, prompting the Axis to declare war on the US

‐ Japan continued to invade Southeast Asia and Burma, plus Indonesia and Australia

‐ December 7th, 1941 – Hours after Pearl Harbour, Japanese troops began their invasion of

Hong Kong

‐ By Christmas Day 1941, Hong Kong had fallen to the Japanese

‐ Canada had sent troops to Hong Kong months earlier, but all 1975 Canadian troops had

been killed or taken prisoner.

CANADA’S ROLE IN EUROPE

The Dieppe Raid

‐ The Allies wanted to do a small raid to test new techniques and equipment

‐ Until 1942, most of the war had been fought in Africa

‐ The 2nd Canadian Division was chosen to be the main force of attack in a raid on the French

port of Dieppe (under German occupation)

‐ There were problems from the start of the raid however

‐ Morning of August 19th, 1942 – one of the ships carrying Canadians to Dieppe unexpectedly

met a small German convoy. They engaged in a small sea battle, but the noise alerted

Germans on shore. The ships were also delayed so they could not embark before dawn.

They were easily shot down in the daylight by German machine guns.

‐ Communication between the ships and land was bad so they sent more reinforcements

ashore, trapping those troops too.

‐ Allied tanks couldn’t get traction on the beach and couldn’t move

‐ The raid was a failure, with 907 Canadian casualties in a 9 hour battle

CANADIANS AT SEA

‐ The Royal Canadian Navy was desperately short of equipment/manpower

‐ By 1941, the Battle of the Atlantic was in full force

‐ Britain was dependent on Canada for food and military supplies

‐ Germans tried to starve the British by cutting off and sinking merchant ships

‐ To prevent being sunk, Allies ailed in convoys (warships escorted vessels carrying supplies)

‐ U‐Boats continued to destroy hundreds of supply ships

‐ Canada began to build corvettes – small, unstable ships that were quick

‐ By May 1942, Britain had cracked the German naval code and more Allied ships were

surviving. The navy personnel were getting better trained and supplies were being

conserved.

‐ The Canadian navy grew a lot during the war, and provided half the escorts across the

Atlantic

CANADIANS IN THE AIR

‐ The Royal Canadian Air Force also grew after the war began

‐ They participated in bombing raids in Britain, North Africa, Italy, Northwest Europe and

Southeast Asia, including night raids over Germany

‐ By mid 1943, the Allies started bombing German industries night after night while US

bombers attacked during the day

‐ Hamburg was bombed relentlessly as the city was engulfed by flames

‐ Nearly 10 000 Canadian bombers lost their lives

‐ In 1941, the RCAF formed the Women’s Division to support the war effort

‐ They were trained as clerks, cooks, assistants and rivers

‐ Only later in the war were women allowed to fly. They delivered the planes but were not

allowed in combat.

THE INVASION OF ITALY

‐ Winston Churchill thought the best way to recapture Europe was through “the soft

underbelly of Europe”: Italy and Sicily

‐ The invasion lasted 2 years

‐ July 10, 1943 – Canadians helped the Allies invade Sicily. After two weeks of fighting, the

Allies won.

‐ In September, they moved to mainland Italy where the muddy conditions and rainy weather

made battle and advances slow.

‐ On June 4, 1944, the Allies took Rome, but fighting in Italy continued until spring of 1945.

D‐DAY AND LIBERATION

‐ June 6th, 1944 – D‐Day: the Allies launched “Operation Overlord” – a full scale invasion of

Europe

‐ They learned from Dieppe and this time the invasion was planned to the very last detail

‐ On the morning of June 6th, over 30 000 Canadian soldiers arrives at Juno beach and worked

through the German built obstacles (concrete barrier, barbed wire) to get inland

‐ German defense was poor as there had been a storm and they didn’t expect an attack

‐ The Allies fought for weeks to get inland

‐ They then began an 11 month advance through France and Belgium, towards Germany

‐ In March 1945, Allied forces attacked Germany

‐ Canadians were given the responsibility of liberating the Netherlands

‐ Allies had attempted to save the Netherlands earlier in 1944 but failed. The Germans had

destroyed many port cities like Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Their food supplies and had

been cut off and so many Dutch were starving to death.

‐ In early April – Canadians began their attack on the Netherlands

‐ The fighting was slow and over 6300 Canadians died

‐ April 17th – the Canadians defeated the Germans in the northern city of Groningen

‐ May 4th – Germans were surrounded and they surrendered

‐ Air drops of food and convoys of trucks carrying supplies provided food to the civilians

‐ Canadians were hailed as heroes

‐ The Allies attacked Germany from the west and the Soviet Union attacked from the East

‐ Germany surrendered on May 7th, 1945

‐ Hitler and his wife Eva Braun committed suicide in a Berlin Bunker before submitting to the

Allies

THE HOLOCAUST DISCOVERED

‐ Millions of people had been murdered in concentration camps

‐ The Final Solution: a plan adopted by the Nazi government in 1941 to rid society of all

people they considered undesirable. Death camps were built all over the German Empire

and Jews from all over Europe were brought to these camps. Their heads were shaved,

families separated and the weak/young were sent immediately to die in gas chambers. The

strong and healthy had to work, until they became too weak. Then, they too went into the

gas chambers.

‐ By 1945, the Germans had killed over 6 million Jews, gypsies, slavs and others.

‐ This event was called the Holocaust.

JAPAN SURRENDERS

‐ After the Allied victory in Europe, the war in the Pacific intensified

‐ By mid 1945, most of the Japanese air force/navy was destroyed

‐ Their army was still strong however, so the US decided to use an atomic bomb

‐ Manhattan Project: a top secret plan by US and British scientists in 1941 to develop a

nuclear bomb. Canada became aware in 1942.

‐ August 6th, 1945 – a US bomber nicknamed Enola Gay dropped the atomic bomb over

Hiroshima, killing 70 000 residents.

‐ August 9th, 1945 – A 2nd bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, killing 40 000 people.

‐ Realizing they could not withstand the power of the nuclear bomb, Japan surrendered.

‐ The war was over.

THE WAR AT HOME

‐ Canadian factories were producing more goods than ever before

‐ Workers worked very long hours and women came in to take men’s places in the work force

‐ Many workers, especially single women, moved from rural areas to industrial cities

CANADA’S WARTIME ECONOMY

‐ With increased production and employment, people had more money

‐ There were less goods to buy though, because most were being shipped off to Britain

‐ Inflation: When there’s too much money and not enough goods, the prices skyrocket.

‐ King appointed James Ilsley (lawyer from Nova Scotia) to address potential inflation and

debt

‐ He encouraged people to buy Victory Bonds

‐ Inflation still occurred however

‐ In 1941, the Wartime Prices and Trade Board froze all wages and prices to prevent inflation

‐ 1942 – King introduced food rationing, limiting the amount of goods one could receive per

week

GROWING DEMAND FOR SOCIAL CHANGE

‐ During the war, the government tried to restrict strikes

‐ Workers wanted higher wages and the right to bargain

‐ After the steel workers in Nova Scotia and coal miners in Alberta/BC went on strike, the

government softened its policy and allowed workers to join unions

‐ The CCF began to become popular

‐ In 1943, the CCF made up the opposition in Ontario

‐ In 1944, the CFF formed the government in Saskatchewan

‐ Feeling the threat of the CCF, King introduced the unemployment insurance program in

1940 and expanded Canada’s social assistance program in 1945.

THE CONSCRIPTION CRISIS

‐ The National Resources Mobilization Act: Introduced by Mackenzie King in response to the

people wanting more government action towards the war. This act gave the government

special emergency powers to mobilize all the resources in the nation to defeat the enemy,

thus allowing conscription.

‐ Conservatives were pressuring King to adopt overseas conscription

‐ So King held a plebiscite on the issue on April 17th, 1942

‐ All provinces except Quebec voted in favour of conscription

‐ In August 1942, an amendment to the National Resources Mobilization Act permitted

overseas conscription

‐ Quebec was angry and King tried to smooth the conflict over, but failed

‐ The Minister of Defense, J.L. Ralston resigned but later decided to stay in his position. King

kept his resignation letter.

‐ He had managed to avoid the issue of overseas conscription for 2 years until…

‐ In the 1944 invasion of Europe, Canada had lost many soldiers and therefore replacements

were needed. Ralston went over to Europe and concluded that more soldiers were indeed

needed. King refused to be convinced and announced Ralston’s resignation two years after

his letter had been handed in

‐ King replaced Ralston with General Andrew McNaughton, who he had hoped would be able

to encourage volunteers, but he failed to do so

‐ King finally caved and sent conscripts overseas

‐ Not all went peacefully, as there were riots in Montreal and conscripts from BC refused to

leave

WHAT THE WAR MEANT TO CANADA

‐ Canada provided support to the Allies economically and militarily

‐ The economy boomed as agriculture was overtaken by industry

‐ Manufacturing was now important and industrial areas became more common

‐ This attracted a massive wave of immigration post‐war

‐ The war proved to the world Canada’s identity and strength

CANADA IN THE POST‐WAR WORLD

‐ The US and the Soviet Union had been allies during WWII, but their relations soon

grew tense

‐ They were hostile towards each other and used spies

‐ Both sides stockpiled weapons and bombs

‐ Canada at this time was trying to keep the US from weakening its national identity

THE COLD WAR BEGINS

‐ The US and Soviet Union were considered superpowers

‐ They both had weapons capable of nuclear annihilation, therefore they simply fought for

political influence in other parts of the world

‐ This rivalry was called the Cold War, as it wasn’t an open war, though it lasted over 40 years

Causes:

Different political systems: The Soviet Union was communist; the government

controlled all industry and commerce. No political opposition was tolerated. The US however

was capitalist, with an economy based on private enterprise, individuals investing in business

for profit. People had freedom of speech in such a system.

‐ Western countries were suspicious of communism as they thought it was aimed to

overthrow Western societies in a world revolution.

‐ The Soviets took over Eastern Europe and established communist governments there

‐ Communists took over China in 1949, the former government fleeing to Taiwan

‐ Committee on Un‐American Activities: created by the US government during the Cold war

to weed out any communists in the country. Chaired by Senator Joseph McCarthy, who

terrified the country with secret lists of alleged communists. Anyone suspected of being a

communist would be persecuted, fired and black‐listed (not allowed to find another job).

THE COLD WAR AT HOME

‐ In 1949, the leader of the Conservatives tried to make the spread of communism AKA the

red menace, an issue.

‐ Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent, however, refused to outlaw communism as it was

undemocratic to do so

‐ Nevertheless, many Canadians began to fear communism

‐ They began to suspect union leaders who fought for better conditions for workers and

defense industries secretly sent out lists of employees for screening

‐ Workers suspected of communism were dismissed for no apparent reason

‐ In Quebec, Premier Maurice Duplessis took a strong stand against communism

‐ Police raided offices and homes to find ‘revolutionary’ material

‐ The Padlock Law was used to shut down suspected organizations/newspapers

‐ When a poorly constructed bridge collapsed in Trois‐Rivieres in 1951, Duplessis claimed it

was communist sabotage

NATO AND THE WARSAW PACT

‐ North Atlantic Treaty Organization: A military alliance formed by the US in fear of the

Soviet Union in 1949, comprised of Canada, the US, Great Britain and other Western

European countries. If any one member was attacked, the others were required to help.

‐ The Warsaw Pact: When NATO accepted West Germany as a member, the Soviet Union felt

threatened and formed an alliance called the Warsaw Pact in 1955. This alliance was

comprised of Eastern European countries, used to protect themselves from attack.

‐ Armies constantly practiced for war and had spies everywhere, searching for secrets and

carrying out murders/assassinations

‐ In 1956, the Soviets brutally crushed a revolution in Hungary

‐ The Berlin Wall: built by East Germany in 1961 to separate East/West Berliners.

THE ISSUE OF NORTH AMERICAN DEFENSE

‐ With long range bombers developed, North America became vulnerable to attack

‐ To protect against Soviet air attacks, the US built 3 lines of radar stations across Canada:

o The Pinetree Line

o The Mid‐Canada Line (in the Arctic)

o The Distant Early Warning (the DEW)

‐ They were constructed between 1950 and 1957, and were designed to detect any surprise

Soviet attacks

‐ For the first time, US military was stationed in Canadian soil.

‐ Some Canadians felt this compromised their independence

‐ Soon, the US and the Soviets had developed intercontinental ballistic missiles

‐ To meet the potential threat of Soviet attack in North America, Canada and the US

established the North American Air Defense Agreement, which included all figher forces,

missile bases and radars controlled by a central command station in Cheyenne Mountain,

Colorado.

CIVIL DEFENCE: THE HOME FRONT IN THE COLD WAR

‐ Canadians were afraid that an open war would rain bombs and missiles on their cities

‐ The government therefore developed civil defense plans

o Nuclear shelters were built, schools ran drills, etc.

PLANNING FOR PEACE: THE UNITED NATIONS

‐ In April 1945, delegates from 51 countries drew up a charter for the United Nations

‐ The United Nations was based on the idea of collective security

‐ If faced with an aggressor nation, it could:

o Condemn the aggressor through speeches and resolutions

o Use economic sanctions, urging members not to trade with the aggressor

o Respond militarily by sending in an armed force

‐ The Security Council is responsible for maintaining peace and security

‐ Its main 5 members are Britain, France, the US, Russia and China

‐ There are also 10 other non‐permanent members with 2 year terms

‐ Decisions require the consent of 9 members, but the 5 permanent members have the power

to veto (reject actions that they disagree with)

‐ Up to 1955, the veto was used 78 times, 75 times of which were by the Soviet Union

‐ The UN also wanted to abolish disease, famine and protect human rights

‐ They created agencies such as the World Health Organization and UNICEF for this

‐ They also established the International Monetary Fund to stabilize the world economy

THE KOREAN CONFLICT

‐ World War II had left Korea divided

‐ The north side was communist, supported by the USSR and communist China

‐ The south side was a fragile democracy backed by the US

‐ In 1950, North Korea tried to invade South Korea and war broke out

‐ A UN force comprised mostly of Americans tried to force the invaders to retreat. Canada

sent thousands of troops as well.

‐ Lester Pearson, Canada’s Minister of Affairs, urged all sides to agree to a ceasefire, which

was reached in 1953

‐ The war had increased tension between the west and the communist nations

THE SUEZ CRISIS

‐ The Suez canal links the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, the shortest sea route from Europe

to the Indian Ocean

‐ In 1956, Egypt’s president, Gamal Abdel Nasser, took over the canal on behalf of Egypt

‐ Israel was frightened by Egypt’s hostility as they had threatened to bar ships to and from

Israel using the canal

‐ France and Britain were quick to go defend Israel and so landed troops in the canal zone

‐ The Soviet Union then offered Egypt financial aid and missiles

‐ Lester Pearson went to the UN and tried to work out a solution

‐ He proposed that a UN Emergency force be sent to the Suez Canal to separate and mediate

between the rival armies

‐ For helping defuse the crisis, Pearson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize

THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

‐ 1959 – Cuban rebels under Fidel Castro overthrew Cuba’s pro‐US leader

‐ The US then imposed trade and economic sanctions on Cuba

‐ In 1961, the US backed an invasion of Cuba by a group of anti‐Castro Cubans

‐ The invasion failed, but Cuba went to the USSR for support

‐ October 1962 – US planes took pictures of the USSR installing nuclear missiles in Cuba

‐ President Kennedy, seeing this threat, announced a naval and air blockade of Cuba

‐ The US was ready for war

‐ Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev originally refused to remove the missiles and ordered

ships to go towards the US ships that blocked Cuba

‐ Last minute, Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missile bases in exchange for the US’s

promise to not invade Cuba

‐ Canada refused to place Canada’s NORAD forces on alert as Prime Minister Diefenbaker was

reluctant to have Canada drawn into the conflict

‐ The US was furious and the event caused much damage to Canada‐US relations

THE NUCLEAR ISSUE IN CANADA

‐ The country was divided as to whether or not Canada should accept nuclear weapons

‐ In 1963, the ruling Conservative Party was divided on the issue

‐ During the electoral campaign of 1963, Lester B. Pearson (Liberal) proposed that Canadian

forces accept nuclear weapons under certain conditions

‐ The Conservatives under Diefenbaker however appealed to nationalism

‐ Pearson won in a narrow defeat and the Liberals formed a minority government

THE VIETNAM WAR

‐ Vietnam was divided in two just like Korea

‐ The north was communist and in the south, there was a dictatorship supported by the US

‐ At first, the US offered only military advice and economic help, but by the 60s, they were

lending troops as well

‐ In 1965, President Lyndon Johnson increased the number of troops and authorized the

bombing of North Vietnam

‐ By 1966, there were 190 000 US soldiers in Vietnam

‐ This war was the first to be recorded by television cameras and so the anti‐war protests

began across the country as a result of seeing the damage on TV screens

‐ The North Vietnamese launched the Tet Offensive, simultaneously attacking cities

throughout South Vietnam and seizing the US embassy in Saigon

‐ The US troops could not win the war

‐ In 1969, Richard Nixon took office, pledging to take the troops out of Southeast Asia

‐ The forces left South Vietnam in 1973

‐ Less than two years later, a North Vietnamese offensive crushed South Vietnam, unifying

the whole country under communist rule

‐ Thousands of Vietnamese fled to Canada in fear of communism

CANADA’S REACTION TO THE WAR

‐ Some benefited from the war, selling goods to the US Defense Department

‐ Most people still saw communism as a threat

‐ Prime Minister Pearson also doubted the war

‐ In 1965, he criticized Operation Rolling Thunder (the US bombing campaign of North

Vietnam)

TRUDEAU’S FOREIGN POLICY

‐ Pierre Elliot Trudeau (LIBERAL) was elected prime minister in 1968.

‐ He wanted to chart a course in foreign policy that was less dependent on US approval.

‐ Trudeau did not want to anger the States however

‐ He wanted to scale back Canada’s participation in the nuclear arm’s race with the USSR

hoping it would ease Cold War tensions

‐ From 1970‐1972, nuclear missiles were removed from Canada’s NATO forces in Europe

‐ Trudeau also cut the national defense budget and reduced Canada’s NATO contingent in

Europe

‐ Canada continued to participate in NATO and NORAD

CANADA AS A MIDDLE POWER

‐ Trudeau wanted world peace and understanding among nations

‐ Canada had began to build links between the East, West, North and South, becoming a

“middle power”

‐ He called for more aid to poor countries in the world and improve living conditions for their

people

‐ This policy of trade and aid = the cornerstone of Trudeau’s foreign policy

‐ Canadian International Development Agency: formed in 1968. Its responsibility was to

boost foreign aid to less industrialized countries. Countries receiving aid would have to

agree to buy products made in Canada. This was also called “tied aid” and made up half of

the development aid that Canada gave to other nations.

THE COMMONWEALTH AND LA FRANCOPHONIE

‐ Canada was in a good position to build bridges between North and South because it was

part of the Commonwealth and la Francophonie

‐ Commonwealth: The former members of the British empire.

‐ La Francophonie: an organization of French‐speaking states.

‐ In 1950, Commonwealth countries established the Colombo‐Plan to provide money and aid

to less developed countries in the organization. Most Canadian aid under the Colombo Plan

went to India and Pakistan.

THE COLD WAR RENEWED

‐ In the early 1970s, tension between the US and the USSR eased and they agreed to reduce

the number of their nuclear weapons

‐ Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT 1): Signed in 1972 by the US and the USSR, a

breakthrough agreement between the two superpowers.

‐ In 1979 however, the USSR invaded Afghanistan and sent new missiles to Eastern Europe.

NATO in response decided to announce that it, too was deploying more missiles to Europe.

‐ In protest against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, many Western nations boycotted

the 1980 Olympic games in Moscow.

‐ In 1983, Soviet jets shot down a Korean passenger jet

‐ A month later, the US invaded Grenada and deposed a pro‐Soviet government

‐ Each superpower accused the other of provoking war

‐ Trudeau appealed to both countries to show more restraint and made a tour of the world

capitals to enlist other leaders to help mediate the tension between the US and the USSR.

‐ Februrary 29th, 1984 – Trudeau had become tired of politics and decided to retire after a

walk through the snowy streets of Ottawa.

THE MULRONEY ERA: CLOSER TIES WITH THE UNITED STATES

‐ Brian Mulroney (Conservative) became Prime Minister in September 1984

‐ Mulroney tried to get closer to the US; developing a close personal relationship with US

President Ronald Reagan

‐ In 1985, the US government revealed a plan for a defense shield, part of which would orbit

the Earth. It was called the Strategic Defense Initiative, nicknamed “Star Wars”.

‐ Mulroney denied Canada’s official involvement, but he tightened other links with the US

‐ The Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA): formed in 1973 by Trudeau to block any

foreign investment that seemed to not be in Canada’s interest. This would reduce the US’s

control over the Canadian economy.

‐ Mulroney declared Canada “open for business” and dismantled FIRA, replacing it with

Investment Canada, which encouraged suitable foreign investment.

‐ In 1987, he started negotiations that led Canada into the Free Trade Agreement, with the

US. The agreement removed tariffs on goods crossing the border and opened up investment

between the two countries.

‐ Free trade was very controversial, some thought it would help the Canadian industry grow,

whereas others thought it would lead to the downfall of the Canadian economy

‐ After much debate, the Free Trade Agreement was established in 1989

‐ North American Free Trade Agreement: Signed in 1992, when the Mulroney government

expanded the free trade zone to Mexico.

‐ This decision was also controversial for similar reasons. Amid protests, the Liberal

Government under Jean Chrétien signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, which

came into effect in 994.

‐ The Conservatives had been defeated in 1993.

THE END OF THE COLD WAR

‐ The war ended surprisingly quickly

‐ Soviet Leader Mikhail Gorbachev, realizing the USSR could not afford such costly arms,

proposed massive cuts in the arsenal of both superpowers

‐ He then began a series of social, economic and political reforms that would help the

communist countries run more efficiently/be more citizen friendly

‐ He loosened censorship and allowed freedom of speech

‐ These changes encouraged other communist countries to do the same

‐ In November 1919, the Berlin Wall came down

‐ Even the Soviet Union fell apart in 1991, with its states becoming independent countries

‐ The Cold War was over

‐ China experimented also with capitalism and citizens wanted political freedom

‐ Their hopes were dashed however in Tiananmen Square in June 1989. Red Army soldiers

and tanks attacked students involved in the democracy movement, killing hundreds maybe

thousands.

‐ Regardless, the division between the communist and western world was gone

THE NEW WORLD ORDER

‐ Many thought the end of the Cold War would bring peace, but there were still numerous

regional and ethnic rivalries

‐ August 1990 – Iraq invaded Kuwait

‐ The UN demanded that Iraq withdrew, however by January 1991, the deadline given had

passed and US/coalition forces began to bomb targets from the air and sea

‐ “Operation Desert Storm” had begun

‐ The Gulf War destroyed much of the Iraqi army and country infrastructure

‐ The use of laser guided bombs and cruise missiles changed war forever

‐ After winning the Gulf WAR, us President George Bush proclaimed a New World Order

‐ From now on, the UN would take a more active role as a global police force, in a

peacekeeping role

‐ As the remaining superpower after the collapse of the USSR, the US was left to dominate

world affairs

SOMALIA

‐ “Operation Restore Hope”‐ Launched in Somalia in 1992 by the UN, it aimed to help the

country which was ravaged by civil war and starvation.

‐ The mission resulted in crisis when one night, members of the Canadian Airborne Regiment

arrested a teen in the night, tortured him and beat him to death. Canadians were shocked at

this blatant act of racism and in 1995, the Airborne Regiment was disbanded.

RWANDA

‐ Rwanda was torn apart by ethnic rivalries

‐ A group of UN peacekeepers led by Canadian major General Romeo Dallaire went to help

control the slaughter

‐ Dallaire had a plan to halt the killing, but it required the UN to send troops quickly and it

also required the support of the US

‐ The response from the UN and US was unenthusiastic

‐ Within a few weeks, close to a million people had died. The UN had failed.

A NEW ERA OF GLOBALIZATION

‐ One of Jean Chrétien’s priorities was to expand Canada’s trade to other countries

‐ He signed free trade agreements with Chile and Israel

‐ Canada also joined the Asia‐Pacific Economic Cooperation Group

‐ These initiatives were part of the globalization trend, a vast network of business,

communications and cultural links among countries

‐ Goods could be easily shipped due to improved communication and technology

‐ The Internet made it possible to do business online in almost any part of the world

GLOBALIZATION AS A PROBLEM

‐ Most think that it will raise living standards for everyone

‐ Others however think that it grows too much dependence on other economies

‐ Also, many multinational corporations have relocated to parts of the world where labour is

cheaper. This takes jobs away from one’s own country, as well as introducing poor/abusive

work conditions for others in foreign countries.

A CHANGING SOCIETY

‐ Many war veterans got married overseas and brought back “War brides” to Canada

‐ They were forced to adapt to a new Canada, which was ever changing

COMING HOME

‐ To ease the transition of veterans back into society, they were given back the jobs they had

before

‐ Veterans/war widows were given hiring preference for government jobs

‐ The Veteran’s Land Act: An act enabling veterans to obtain mortgages at preferred rates.

THE NEW FACE OF CANADA

‐ Displaced persons: Refugees who languished in camps across Europe, including

concentration camp survivors and others who had no homes, possessions or hope.

‐ Canada accept displaced persons and settled them in communities

‐ Most new immigrants now settled in cities as opposed to farms

‐ Suburbs: New housing developments in the outlying areas of cities where land was

cheaper. Many more suburbs were built as the population expanded. The need for housing

increased and so these communities were built.

‐ Suburban values: Suburban families were seen as traditional; with the stay at home mom

and the perfect children. Women’s jobs were given back to war veterans and new

household gadgets such as electric floor polishers made housework easier.

‐ Baby boom: The post war period until 1960 where there was a drastic increase in birth rate.

6.7 million children were born between 1946 and 1961.

DEVELOPMENTS IN SOCIETY

Automobiles: In the 1950s, Canadians fell in love with cars

‐ Small stores shut down in want of supermarkets and shopping malls

‐ Few thought about the pollution it would cause, seatbelts were non‐exist and

drinking/driving was considered acceptable

Television/Consumer Society: TV encouraged a consumer society, where people would buy more

products. Thousands of inventions were introduced and shopping became a national pastime.

Teen Culture: With no more wars/economic hardship to force students out of school, the teenager was

invented

‐ They had more leisure time, more money to spend and more independence than kids

‐ Rock and roll (developed in the 50s), became popular and were favoured amongst teens

Canada and the good: Most Canadians were still conservative

‐ Hockey however was still a favourite pastime

Protecting Canadian Culture: Canada was influenced heavily by the US and Hollywood

‐ To investigate Canadian culture, the federal government created The Massey Commission

in 1949. It suggested the Canadians be protected from US influences.

‐ It recommended the strengthening of the National Film Board (established in 1939)

‐ It also recommended funding to the arts and universities

‐ They created the Canada Council in 1957 which awarded grants to writers and artists

‐ The Massey Commission also recommended that TV be used for national entertainment

‐ They put the CBC (previously made for radio) in charge of television

‐ The first two stations opened in Toronto and Montreal in 1952

‐ However, US programs were still preferred by audiences and children grew up knowing

more about American culture than Canadian culture

‐ In 1968, the government established The Canadian Radio‐television and

Telecommunications Commission, which imposed rules requiring Canadian content.

POST WAR PROSPERITY

‐ On August 6th, 1945, Prime Minister Mackenzie King called a meeting of the provincial

premiers to discuss the economy

‐ King recommended that the federal government be in charge of the economy

‐ Provinces like Quebec and Ontario however were not willing to give up their own powers

‐ C.D. Howe, the Minister of Reconstruction, Trade and Commerce had a new strategy:

o Private industry would handle the transition of the economy with the help of

government incentives

o Tax breaks would be given to companies who produced consumer goods

o Government Crown corporations were auctioned off to private companies

o Soon, Canada’s economy was booming

‐ The provinces then transferred taxation powers to the federal government

‐ The provinces receive the right to provide social services

‐ The federal government now had much more power at the expense of the provinces

RICH RESOURCES AND NEW INDUSTRIES

‐ Oil was discovered in Alberta in 1947

‐ Boom towns were created where new mines and wells developed

‐ Ontario however was still the centre of manufacturing

‐ The Trans‐Canada Highway – the longest national highway in the world, which was

completed in 1970. It spanned from St. John’s to Victoria.

‐ The St. Lawrence Seaway ‐ a joined Canada‐United States project spanning from 1954‐

1959. It linked the Atlantic Ocean with the Great Lakes.

‐ The Trans‐Canada Pipeline – Built to transport gas cheaply from the west to the industrial

centres of Canada.

‐ Canadians began to think that they were becoming the 49th state because of the US’s great

influence over them, an uncertain debate that continued until the Free Trade Agreement

CANADIAN OWNERS AND WORKERS

‐ In the west, H.R. MacMillan put together one of the world’s largest forestry companies

‐ In New Brunswick, K.C. Irving became one of the world’s richest men

‐ Trade unions fought for a greater share of the country’s prosperity

‐ From 1946‐1947, 7 million workdays were lost to strikes

‐ Wages rose as a result, allowing Canadians more money to spend therefore benefitting

other businesses

LIMITATIONS

‐ Women were paid significantly less than men

‐ Immigrants and the working poor worked under miserable conditions

‐ The First Nations suffered from the industrial pollution

‐ The development of mines, highways and boomtowns disrupted Native hunting grounds

THE NATION EXPANDS

‐ After World War II, islanders of Newfoundland (independent until 1932) decided to hold a

referendum to vote on their political future

‐ J.R. Joey Smallwood was a skillful politician who argued they should join Canada

‐ June 1948 – The first referendum was held with no clear majority

‐ March 31st, 1949 – They held a second vote and the Confederation won the vote.

‐ March 31st, 1949 – Newfoundland became a part of Canada.

THE CHANGING FACE OF POLITICS

‐ Mackenzie King had been in power longer than any other prime minister

‐ In 1948, he retired at the age of 73

‐ Louis St. Laurent was his replacement

‐ The media at this time began to play a larger role in Canadian life, influencing the public into

seeing certain views

‐ TVs promoted John Diefenbaker (Progressive Conservative), who was seen as electrifying.

‐ He won the election and the Liberals chose a new leader, Lester Pearson

DIEF VS. MIKE

‐ Over the next decade, Pearson and Diefenbaker took turns being Prime Minister and Leader

of the Opposition; they were bitter rivals through 5 national elections in 10 years.

‐ Diefenbaker: a Prairies populist who listened o ordinary people.

‐ He was committed to the equality of all Canadians (called “unhyphenated Canadianism”).

He was also a nationalist who believed in preserving Canada’s British connections while

standing up to the Americans.

‐ He was pro‐human rights and the first prime minister to include a woman in his Cabinet and

include an Aboriginal senator.

‐ He gave status Indians living on reserves the right to vote in federal elections

‐ He introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights

‐ Pearson: He belived that British connections to Canada would be severed in the long run

‐ He introduced trial abolition of capital punishment and easier divorce laws

‐ He introduced Canada’s flag and improved the social welfare system

SOCIAL WELFARE

‐ King introduced an unemployment insurance in 1940 and the “baby bonus” in 1944

‐ Canadian Pension Plan: Introduced in 1966 by Pearson’s government, which improved on

existing pension schemes.

‐ Canada Assistance Plan: Helped the provinces finance social assistance programs for all

needy people, introduced by Pearson’s government.

‐ Pearson also introduced Medicare

‐ Saskatchewan Premier T.C. Tommy Douglas introduced a medicare program first

‐ The bill was passed in 1962

‐ In 1962 also, Tommy Douglas became the leader of the New Democratic Party, formed from

the CCF

‐ The Liberals were threatened by the NDP and feared they would win the election through

the introduction of Medicare

‐ In 1966, the National Medical Care Act was passed. This meant that federal and provincial

governments would then share the cost of medical care with funding from taxes.

‐ In 1967, Canada turned 100 years old

‐ Diefenbaker and Pearson realized they were becoming out of touch with the times so

Pearson stepped down, being replaced by Trudeau. Diefenbaker was defeated in a

leadership convention of the Progressive Conservative Party in 1967.

THE TRUDEAU ERA

‐ Trudeau was a flashy politician, arriving in sports cars, dating celebrities and joking with

reporters. Canadians were in love with him. Trudeaumania gripped the nation.

‐ He wanted to build a “just society”.

‐ He believed that the government had the duty to protect the rights/freedoms of the people

The Youthquake:

‐ Due to the large number of youth in North America, a more powerful youth culture of

protest called “youthquake” was created

‐ The transition began with the British Invasion led by the Beatles

‐ This began the hippie phenomenon; an era of sexual promiscuity and drugs

‐ This youthquake showed that young people were becoming more politically aware

‐ In 1972, the voting age for federal elections was lowered from 21 to 18

‐ By the 1980s, the baby boomers began to live more subdued lives. Their desire for wealth

nicknamed them the “Me Generation” and so the social protest movement had gone

The Women’s Movement:

‐ In the 1960s, the idea of feminism emerged

‐ Women felt trapped by their households

‐ In response, the government set up the Royal Commission on the Status of Women in 1967

to examine a woman’s role in society. They realized:

o Women should have the right work outside of home

o Society should take responsibility for children; daycares should be implemented

o Women should be entitled to paid maternity leave from their jobs

o The federal government should help women overcome discrimination

‐ The National Action Committee on the Status of Women: a pressure group formed in 1971

by several women’s groups. They lobbied with governments to act quickly on the

Commission’s recommendations. They won a clause guaranteeing the equality of women in

Canada’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which came into force in 1982.

‐ By the 1980s, more Canadian women became engineers, doctors and politicians

The Environmental Movement:

‐ Public concern over the environment began to rise dramatically

‐ Eventually, the government passed laws requiring companies to prove their projects would

not harm the environment

‐ Recycling became more common and vehicles had to become more fuel efficient

‐ Greenpeace: An environmental group formed in 1970 by a group of activists in BC.

Concerned about nuclear testing off the coast of Alaska, they took a boat to the area and

refused to leave until the test was cancelled. They have used similar tactics since then and

today are based in Amsterdam.

ECONOMIC CHALLENGES

The Oil Embargo of 1973 by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

‐ In 1973, war broke out in the Middle East between Israel and its Arab neighbors

‐ Many western countries including Canada supported Israel

‐ OPEC retaliated by refusing to sell oil to those countries; gas and oil prices jumped 400%

overnight

‐ This inflation was seen across the country, spreading to products as well

‐ As prices rose, workers wanted higher wages and as the wages got higher, the prices did too

‐ Businesses began to fall and unemployment rates got high

Regional Disparity: The gap between the poorer and more prosperous regions of Canada.

‐ As the recession of the 70s hit, the provinces who depended on national resources were

most impacted. However, Ontario and Quebec did not suffer as much and other provinces

resented them for that.

Western Alienation: People in the Prairies believed that Ottawa favoured Central Canada at the

expense of the West. In response to the oil crisis, the federal government froze the price of oil

and gas, while imposing a tax on petroleum that was exported from western Canada. The

money from those taxes would be used to subsidize the cost of imported oil from the East.

Albertans were furious.

‐ Trudeau increase transfer payments to provinces for social services and spent millions of

regional projects to boost economic development in certain areas.

‐ The Liberals then bought in to the National Energy Program , which aimed to:

o Reduce the consumption of oil

o To protect Canadians from rising oil prices

o To make Canada self‐sufficient in oil

‐ The program gave funding to Canadian Petroleum companies so they could drill for oil in

promising sites. They also encouraged citizens to switch to electric power.

‐ By 1984, oil prices had fallen and the NEP had been dismantled

THE DEBT CRISIS

‐ Social services cost more than they had envisioned

‐ Government was operating at a deficit: more money was being spent than earned

‐ The government collected less taxes when businesses failed, but then needed to give out

more welfare and so Canada needed to borrow money for its programs

‐ When Trudeau left office in 1984, the federal government was 160 billion dollars in debt

MULRONEY AND THE DEBT

‐ Brian Mulroney (Progressive Conservative) came to power in 1984, promising to fix

Canada’s economy.

‐ Mulroney planned to copy Ronald Reagan (the US) and Margaret Thatcher (Britain). He

would save money by trimming social programs.

‐ He would cut taxes and stimulate the economy; however, this did not work

‐ Canada was hit by recession in 1990 and people lost their jobs while debt increased

‐ The Conservatives lost in 1993 in a disastrous defeat

THE LIBERALS AND THE DEBT

‐ Jean Chrétien (Liberal) came into power in 1993, with a debt of $466 billion

‐ Their solution was to inject money into the economy; spending 6 billion dollars on public

works such as road repairs and new bridges

‐ Interest rates shot up in 1994 however, and Finance Minister Paul Martin concluded that

Canada could no longer afford its vast number of social services

‐ Martin began cutting federal government spending; raising tuition fees and health costs

‐ Some Canadians went to the US for treatment as the services they needed were not

available in Canada

CANADA AND NEW TECHNOLOGY

‐ Canadians became world travelers due to the advancement of airplanes

‐ Satellites allowed access to hundreds of television stations

‐ Satellites allowed for cheap long distance phone calls

‐ In the 1980s, personal computers were introduce and by the 21st century, over half of

Canadians had computers

THE CANADIAN IDENTITY

THE ROOTS OF QUEBEC NATIONALISM

The Duplessis Era

‐ From 1936‐1939 and again from 1944‐1959, Quebec was controlled by Premier Maurice

Duplessis (Union Nationale)

‐ He was a strong Quebec nationalist who thought of Quebec as its own nation

‐ He introduced a new flag for Quebec featuring the fleur‐de‐lis

‐ The Roman Catholic Church became the main defender of Quebec culture

‐ Religion was a common part of the curriculum, along with languages and philosophy

‐ Duplessis encouraged foreign investment in Quebec

‐ The province guaranteed cheap labour and promised low taxes

‐ Bribery and corruption were trademarks of the Duplessis regime

The Quiet Revolution

‐ After Duplessis died in 1960, Jean Lesage (Liberals) came into power

‐ Quiet Revolution: the group of changes brought on by Jean Lesage after Duplessis died.

‐ Lesage first ruled out corruption, wages/pensions were raised and restrictions on trade

unions were removed

‐ They also modernized the province’s economy, politics and culture

‐ They changed up the curriculum to make it more science and technology‐oriented

‐ The influence of the Catholic Church declined

‐ The Liberals won again in the 1962 election, with the aim of strengthening Quebec’s own

economy

‐ The government bought out several hydro companies and turned it into a provincial

monopoly called Hydro‐Quebec

The Birth of Separatism

‐ With Quebec’s new achievements, they got angrier at the injustices of the anglo‐Canadians

‐ The only solution seen by most was separation from Canada

‐ Young radicals joined terrorist groups such as the FLQ and fought in the name of a free

Quebec

‐ Front de la Liberation du Québec: a terrorist group who fought for a free Quebec. They

used firebombs and explosives to attack symbols of English power. Most Quebec

nationalists disagreed with such tactics.

‐ In 1967, the Quebec cabinet minister René Lévesque left the Liberal Party and formed the

Parti Québécois, a party also in favour of Quebec’s independence/separation.

Ottawa’s Response

‐ Lester Pearson was prime minister in the midst of the Quiet Revolution

‐ He appointed the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism to investigate

solutions for the French’s discontent

‐ The commission recommended the Canada become officially bilingual

‐ Francophones complained about the dominance of British symbols, so Pearson suggested

Canada make a new flag and so chose the maple leaf.

‐ Canadians resented a new flag because they thought Pearson was simply making the

francophones happy

‐ However, on Februrary 15th, 1965, Canada’s new flag was raised for the first time

Trudeau and Québec

‐ Trudeau replaced Pearson in 1968

‐ He passed the Official Languages Act, which made Canada a bilingual country

‐ Many embraced the declaration, but some Westerners felt French was being forced on

them

‐ Francophones however felt that Trudeau was not doing enough

‐ They wanted “special status” for Quebec in Confederation, but Trudeau refused

The October Crisis

‐ October 5th 1970 – members of the FLQ kidnapped James Cross, a British diplomat from his

home in Montreal

‐ In exchange for his release, the FLQ demanded the release of FLQ members in prison

‐ The government however, refused

‐ October 10th, 1970 – The FLQ kidnapped Quebec labour minister Pierre Laporte

‐ Trudeau, needing to take action, asked Parliament to impose the War Measures Act, which

suspended civil rights and had only been used during the first two world wars

‐ Anyone could be arrested without being charged for an offense; being part of the FLQ was

then a crime

‐ October 16th – federal troops were sent to patrol the streets of Ottawa and Montreal,

where hundreds of pro‐separatist Quebeckers were arrested

‐ October 17th – the police found the strangled body of Pierre Lapointe in the trunk of a car

‐ Two months later, the Montreal police found the group holding James Cross in a Montreal

house

‐ In exchange for Cross’s safety, the group members were given a safe passage to Cuba where

they’d get political asylum.

‐ Those detained under the War Measures Act were released and the October Crisis was over

The PQ in Power

‐ The Parti Quebecois took power in 1976

‐ Leader René Levesque promised to hold a referendum regarding independence

‐ Bill 101, AKA the “Charter of the French Language” – this bill made French the only official

language of the province. It was introduced by René Levesque shortly after he got power.

The 1980 Referendum

‐ A referendum was held in 1980 to determine Quebec’s political future

‐ He proposed that Quebec become independent yet maintain economical ties with Canada

‐ Trudeau promised to negotiate a new Constitution that would be a “no side win”

‐ The referendum voted against independence and René Levesque accepted defeat

Patriating the Constitution

‐ The British North America Act had been Canada’s constitution since 1867

‐ The Act was under British jurisdiction however, so no changes could be made without British

approval

‐ Trudeau wanted to bring the Constitution home to Canada, as well as include a Charter or

Rights and Freedoms

‐ Trudeau needed to first think of an amending formula, how changes would be made.

‐ On November 4th, 1981, 10 premiers met in Ottawa overnight and thought of the Kitchen

Compromise. 9/10 premiers were awakened in the middle of the night to approve the deal.

‐ The premiers accepted the Charter of Rights, given that an escape clause were added (as in,

federal/provincial government could opt out of certain clauses in the Charter)

‐ An amending formula was also decided upon: changes could only be made with the

approval of 7/10 provinces representing half of Canada’s population.

‐ René Levesque, who was staying in another hotel, was not included in the Kitchen

Compromise.

‐ He argued the deal, but Trudeau accepted the compromise

‐ Quebec felt betrayed

‐ On April 17th, 1982, the New Constitution Act was signed into law by Queen Elizabeth II and

Prime Minister Trudeau and the Canadian Constitution had returned to Canada

The Constitution Debate

‐ By 1984, the greatest concern of Canadians was the economy

‐ In the election campaign of 1984, Brian Mulroney (Progressive Conservative), decided to

appeal to the Quebeckers by promising to repair the damage done by the Constitution

‐ Mulroney was elected and began negotiations when René Lévesque retired and Robert

Bourassa (Pro‐Federalist Liberal Party) came into power

‐ His goal was to get Quebec to sign the constitution, but other provinces also had demands

‐ Western alienation had become a problem again as Ottawa gave a government contract to

Bombardier, a Montreal‐based airplane company as opposed to the Winnipeg based Bristol

Aerospace of Winnipeg.

‐ The Reform Party: formed in 1987 to give a voice to western Canada.

The Meech Lake Accord

‐ In 1987, Prime Minister Mulroney called the premiers to a conference at Meech Lake

‐ They were to discuss amendments to the Constitution

‐ They proposed to recognize Quebec as a distinct society and gave more power to other

provinces

‐ Manitoba and Newfoundland withheld their support however and the Accord disintegrated

in June 1990

‐ Bloc Québécois: formed in 1990 by Lucien Bouchard, a Quebec member of Mulroney’s

cabinet.

The Charlottetown Accord

‐ Mulroney’s government formed a “Citizen’s Forum”, a committee that travelled across the

nation to hear the views of Canadians on the Constitution

‐ They made a new package of proposed amendments

‐ This was the Charlottetown Accord

‐ It proposed reforming the Senate, making it an elected body with equal representation from

all parts of the country

‐ It also supported Aboriginal self‐government

‐ The Accord was put to a national referendum in October 1992

‐ Despite seemingly pleasing everyone, over 50% of voters rejected it

‐ The greatest opposition was in BC, where they didn’t want to give Quebec too much power

‐ This accord also failed

Referendum of 1995 and After

‐ The separatist Pari Québécois was elected once again in the 1994 provincial election

‐ Premier Jacques Parizeau called a provincial referendum on Quebec’s separation

‐ The no side won by a little over 1%

‐ Lucien Bouchard became Quebec premier at the end of the century and spoke of a new

referendum

‐ Prime Minister Jean Chrétien established the “Clarity Bill”, which set down in law that a

substantial yes majority was required before Quebec’s independence could be negotiated

‐ The Liberals won the Quebec election in 2000 as separatism declined

‐ Bouchard resigned and the new Premier became Bernard Landry

A Multicultural Nation

‐ From the end of World War I to the 60s, Canada had a restrictive immigration policy

‐ In 1962, new regulations removed limits on Asian, African and other foreign immigrants

‐ In 1967, legislation made Canada’s immigration policy colour blind

‐ Immigrants were then chosen based on education and employment prospects

‐ In 1971, Trudeau introduced an official Policy of Multiculturalism , which encouraged the

country’s various ethnic groups to express their cultures.

‐ In 1976, immigration regulations changed again, allowing immigration of family members

with relatives already in Canada

‐ Post‐ 60s, more allowance was made for refugees fleeing persecution in their home lands

‐ In the 80s, Canada became more multicultural than ever, with the biggest increase being

from Asian countries.

‐ Some thought though that multiculturalism was preventing Canada from forming an identity

Aboriginal Nations

‐ Aboriginal people living on reserves got the right to vote in 1960

‐ They continued to suffer however from poor health and poverty

‐ The National Indian Brotherhood: formed in the late 1960s to lobby on behalf of the

Aboriginal people living on reserves.

‐ Trudeau’s government proposed a policy outlined in the White Paper of 1969. (A document

put forth for discussion that could be passed into the law)

‐ Trudeau and Chrétien, the Indian Affairs Minister, thought that abolishing any special rights

that the Indians had (such as not paying taxes), would solve the problem. This would allow

Aboriginals to integrate into mainstream society.

‐ The Aboriginals were furious and demanded self government, control over their own affairs.

‐ They presented their own paper: Citizens Plus AKA The Red Paper.

Educational Concerns

‐ The system of residential schools was abandoned in 1969

‐ Aboriginals created their own schools, teaching their own languages and cultures

‐ As par of a government run “boarding home program”, some high school students were

sent to live with families and attend schools in cities such as Vancouver

‐ The loneliness drove some home however before graduation

‐ Many students were abused at the schools

‐ The government apologized in 1998 and announced a $350 Healing Fund

Environmental Concerns

‐ Industries were expanding around reserves and Aboriginals were concerned this would

affect their traditional activities

‐ In the 1970s, the Inuit, Métis and Indian Brotherhood of the Yukon/Northwest Territories

wanted to halt the construction of oil and natural gas pipelines that would run through their

land

‐ They demanded a study to examine the effects of the project

‐ The Berger Commission was created for this purpose and they suggested that the

construction of the pipelines be suspended for 10 years pending environmental study.

‐ In Quebec, after disputes in the 80s and 90s, the Cree of the North managed to halt the

construction of two new phases of the James Bay Hydro Project, which threatened to flood

their territory

The Path to Self‐Government

‐ 1980 – Canadian Aboriginal peoples formed the Assembly of First Nations to represent

them in their dealings with the federal government

‐ Aboriginal rights were then entrenched in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms

‐ Bill C‐31: passed in 1985 by Parliament. It gave the Aboriginal band councils the power to

decide who had the right to live on Aboriginal reserves

‐ Aboriginals still wanted self‐government, however.

‐ Specific claims: Land claims pertaining to areas where treaties between Aboriginal peoples

and the federal government had been signed. In these cases, the government had not kept

their terms.

‐ Comprehensive claims: Land claims pertaining to ownership of land in parts of Canada

never surrendered by the treaty.

The Oka Confrontation

‐ In Oka, Quebec during the summer of 1990, the Oka Town Council decided to expand a golf

course into Mohawk territory (the Kanesatake reserve)

‐ The Mohawk warrior society stopped construction by blockading the land

‐ The Quebec Provincial Police were called in to remove the block

‐ On July 11th, 1990, the police advanced on the Mohawk lines. Gunfire broke out and an

officer was killed.

‐ A tense stand‐off ensued and there were nightly violent confrontations

‐ Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa called in the Canadian Forces for help as other bands

persuaded the Mohawks to end the stand‐off

‐ The disputed land was eventually bought by the federal government and given to

Kanesatake

Land Claims in British Columbia

‐ Aboriginal nations never officially gave up claims to most of BC

‐ The Royal Proclamation of 1763 also declared that any lands purchased by the British

belonged to the Indians

‐ In 1887 – the Nisga’a began asserting their land rights. Even when the Indian Act made it

illegal for them to raise funds for land claims, they continued.

‐ In the mid 1990s, the governments of Canada and BC decided that the time had come to

settle the Nigsa’a claim

‐ In 1996, they won the right to 8% of their original land, ownership of the forests and the

right to their own municipal government/policing however the Nigsa’a agreed to pay taxes.

‐ In 1998, the Supreme Court of Canada defined “Aboriginal Title”. It ruled that Aboriginal

groups could claim ownership of land if they could prove they had the land before the

Canadian government claimed sovereignty.

A Powerful Force for Change

‐ Nunavut was created in 1999 from the largest treaty negotiated ever in Canada

‐ It gave the Inuit political control of 1.6 million square kilometers on the Eastern Arctic

THE GOVERNMENT

‐ Government: the formal decision‐making system that acts to established rules and

procedures.

‐ Institutions: Bodies or groups responsible for carrying out specific aspects of the

government’s work.

‐ Our formal methods of decision making have European roots, who brought their forms of

governing with them to North America

‐ Democracy: ruled by the people

‐ Direct democracy: When every eligible citizen participates directly by voting in all decisions

that affect society. This was practiced in Ancient Greece.

‐ Representative democracy: Where elected representatives make decisions on voters’

behalf. Example: Canada.

‐ Constitutional monarchy: The recognition of a monarch (king or queen) as head of state.

Canada is an example of one.

‐ The Queen doesn’t actually rule any nation alone. However, the Crown has ultimate power.

In Canada the Crown is represented by the Governor General.

‐ Canadian Constitution: A legal document that outlines who should have the power to make

various decisions. It outlines the structure of our government and defines/limits the

government’s power. Canada is a constitutional monarchy: the powers and responsibilities

of the monarch are subject to the laws in the Constitution. Originally called the British North

America Act, after its amendment in 1982, it has 3 main parts:

o A description of the powers of provincial legislatures and Parliament

o A Charter of Rights and Freedoms that outlines the basic rights and responsibilities

of every Canadian

o An amending formula that describes how the Constitution may be changed or

altered. This formula requires 7/10 provinces to agree on the proposal; the 7

provinces must also make up at least one half of the population of Canada

‐ The Unwritten Constitution: Customs, laws and statutes taken from British tradition that we

abide by but are not written in the Constitution. For example: political parties.

‐ The Nonwithstanding Clause – A clause in the Constitution that allows Parliament or the

legislature of province to allow an act to stand even if it contravenes the Charter.

‐ Federal System AKA Federalism: an organization of regional governments (provinces) acting

on behalf of its own residents, with a central government responsible for matters vital to

the nation as a whole.

‐ All levels of governments have different responsibilities.

Federal Shared Responsibilities Provincial Responsabilities

National Defense Immigration Education

Foreign Policy Agriculture Charities

Aboriginal Affairs Health Care Health Services and Hospitals

Postal Services Natural Resources Licences

Banking System Environmental Issues Highways

Marriage and Divorce Law Provincial Court System

Criminal Law Provincial Police and Prisons

Federal Prisons

‐ The Fathers of Confederation assigned all new areas of decision that didn’t exist in 1867 to

the federal government as residual powers.

‐ This explains why the federal government is in charge of television, computers and faxes, as

the technology did not exist back when the Confederation was create

‐ Municipal governments: AKA local governments that provide essential services like garbage

disposal and water supply. They are controlled by the provincial governments.

‐ Canada is divided into three branches: legislative, executive and judicial

‐ Executive power: the power to make decisions and administer them.

‐ Legislative power: the power to make laws.

‐ All three levels of government have the power to make/amend laws.

‐ Judicial power: the power to interpret/administer the law.

‐ Judicial power is separate from the two other branches of the government to ensure that

the government acts within the Law.

THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

‐ Parliament is made up of the Governor General, the House of Commons and the Senate

‐ Parliament must meet at least once a year in a session to pass new laws, amends and

debate issues of concern

The House of Commons: AKA the Lower House. It is the only part of the legislative branch that has

elected members. Elections for seats in the House must occur every 5 years unless an election is called

earlier.

‐ Ridings: AKA constituencies, areas that are divided roughly in equal in population (100 000

citizens). Each riding is represented by a Member of Parliament (MP).

‐ The number of seats in the House of Commons depends on the population

‐ Debates in the House of Commons are directed by the Speaker of the House, an MP chosen

by other MPs chosen to lead the discussion

‐ Members sit with their parties

‐ The opposition parties (not in power) sit opposite the government party

‐ Their job is to scrutinize the actions of the government

‐ Caucus: Every political party holds private meetings called caucuses. Here, they discuss

concerns and opinions freely. Once a decision is reached in caucus, it is tradition for all MPs

to vote in favour of the party’s position in the House of Commons.

‐ Free vote: When members of the legislature vote according to what they want, as opposed

to following a party decision.

The Senate: AKA the Upper House of Parliament. It is independent of the House of Commons and runs

its own affairs. It provides a final check on the legislation passed in the House of Commons and may also

introduce their own bills and pass them. They would then need to send the bill to the House of

Commons, though this practice is rare. Senators are appointed by the Governor General by

recommendation of the Prime Minister. Senators must:

o Be Canadian citizens

o Be at least 30 years old/younger than 75

o Be Living in the province/territory they represent

o Own at least $4000 of property.

‐ Provinces with greater populations have more senators

‐ Patronage: A reward given for individual loyalty or support

The Executive Branch:

Governor General: The monarch’s representative. They must give formal assent (agreement) to

a bill before it becomes a law.

The Prime Minister: The leader of the party with the most elected representatives in the House

of Commons. They must be asked by the Governor General to become prime minister.

The Cabinet: Made up of elected party members chosen by the prime minister. Usually each

member is responsible for a particular department, ie. Defense or finance. Cabinet meetings are

held in private and in the meetings, they may express their views frankly.

Cabinet solidarity: In public however, cabinet members must show full support of their

leader . This is called cabinet solidarity so that the government appears unified

Party whip: One member of a party that is elected to ensure that members are present

in Parliament to support party bills and vote according to the party.

The Public Service: AKA the civil service or the bureaucracy. It is a group of permanent

employees who perform the business of the government ie. Gather stats, write details for laws

or collect taxes.

How a Bill Becomes Law

Private Members’s Bill: if the member introducing a bill is not part of the Cabinet. Any member

of the House of Commons or Senate may introduce a bill.

Procedure:

‐ Idea for bill is drafted

‐ Idea is explained to Cabinet

‐ Cabinet approves idea

‐ Lawyers draft the bill

‐ Cabinet committee examines the bill

‐ Cabinet and caucus approve the bill

‐ The bill is introduced to the House of Commons for the first reading

‐ Second reading: The house debates and votes on the principle of the bill.

‐ The Parliamentary committee examines the bill

‐ The House amends the bill

‐ Third reading: Usually little debate and vote

‐ If it passes, it goes to the Senate (unless the Senate introduced the bill first in which case it is

given to the House of Commons)

‐ Senate examines, debates and amends the bill

‐ Once approved, the bill passes senate

‐ The Governor General gives formal assent and the bill is now a law

Provincial governments

‐ Has responsibilities in education, health and social services, transportation and negotiation

with the federal government.

This table shows the roles in provincial governments vs. federal governments.

Federal Government Role Provincial/Territorial Gov.

Governor General Representative of the monarchy Lieutenant‐Governor

Prime Minister Leader of the government and

party in power

Premier

Cabinet Ministers responsible for

departments as chosen by the

leader of the government

Cabniet

House of Commons Part of legislative branch of

government where elected

representatives make and

change laws

Legislative or National Assembly

Senate Provides sober second thought

to the actions of the House of

Commons

[No equivalent]

Public Service Civil service/bureaucracy, non

elected people who conduct the

business of the government

Public Service

Local Governments

‐ Simplest form is a town council

‐ The leader of the council may be called mayor, reeve, chairperson, overseer or warden

Aboriginal Self‐Government

‐ Many Aboriginal communities have local governments that provide for the people’s needs

‐ The leader is called a chief

‐ The chief must negotiate with higher levels of government regarding licenses, access to

highways and education

THE CITIZEN AND GOVERNMENT

Elections:

‐ Any Canadian citizen over the age of 18 may vote

‐ Elections are held at least every 5 years for federal and provincial parliaments

‐ Municipal elections usually occur every 2‐3 years

‐ When the Prime Minister decides to call an election, they ask the Governor General to

dissolve Parliament

‐ Political campaigns are usually expensive and therefore the Elections Expenses Act was

created in 1974. It limited the spending of campaigns and evened out the playing field for

candidates with fewer funds.

‐ Public Opinion Polls: Parties usually seek public opinion throughout the year through polls.

‐ On election day, polling stations are set up in every riding usually in schools or churches.

The Electoral System:

‐ First‐past‐the‐post system: Used in Canada, when the polls close, the votes are counted and

the candidate with the most votes in each riding is announced the winner. No majority is

needed. This system accentuates regionalism.

‐ Proportional representation: Used in Israel, Holland and Italy where each political party sets

out a list of all its candidates. Voters support a candidate based on their party and the

number of seats a party wins in legislature is based on the total number of votes it receives.

Politcal Parties:

‐ Most elected representatives belong to a political party

‐ Members of the same party share the same ideology (group of beliefs)

‐ Parties are generally divided between left‐wing, centre and right wing

LEFT CENTRE RIGHT

Support change in order to

improve the welfare of citizens.

Tradition is important, but

change must be supported if

most people want It.

Tradition is important; change

should be treated with caution.

Governments should play larger

roles in people’s lives, especially

in social service.

Governments should play a role

only when it improves the lives

of citizens.

Governments should play a small

role. Private businesses should

ensure that needs of citizens are

met.

Law and order are important to

protect the rights of all citizens

fairly and equally.

Law and order are important to

encourage and protect the rights

of individuals

Emphasizes law and order to

protect society and its traditions

Joining a political party: ‐ must be 18 years old

Non‐Governmental Organization –(NGO) non profit organizations that work to improve lives ie. The

Red Cross and Oxfam.

Pressure Groups: made up of people who share a certain viewpoint and want to change/influence the

government to promote their interest.

Institutionalized pressure groups: Well established and have formal organizations.

Issue‐oriented groups: Less permanent and tend to accomplish limited aims.

‐ Government often seeks advice from these groups

Lobbyist: used by institutionalized groups. They are paid to represent the interests of a

particular group to key decision makers such as politicians.

Media: Parties often use the media to present a skewed view of certain things. They use propaganda to

“convert” citizens to their side.

Civil disobedience: the act of intentionally breaking or refusing to keep laws that one considers unjust.

This is a form of protest used by Martin Luther King and Ghandi who both ultimately died for their

cause.

CANADA’S LEGAL SYSTEM

Rule of Law: This means we are governed by a fixed set of laws that apply to all people.

Magna Carta is a symbol of this, signed in 1215 by King John. It guaranteed many rights

for British citizens.

Habeus Corpus: The right to a judge.

Civil Law: Deals with relationships between individuals or groups, as in disputes over property or

personal relationships. The person who has been hurt is called the Plaintiff whereas the accused is

called the Defendant.

Criminal Law: Deals with matters that affect society as a whole. As the crimes are against society as a

whole, the defense represents the accused person and those accusing the accused person are called the

Crown or, the persecution. Only the federal government can make criminal laws.

Criminal Code of Canada: Passed by federal Parliament in 1892 and contains many criminal laws.

Common law: Based on the decisions of judges in the British royal courts, aka it’s based on precedent

and things that have happened before.

Statutory law: Written law set down by legislature.

‐ Québec’s civil law system is different from legal tradition and only applies to its own

province. It is based on Roman law.

The Charter of Rights and Freedoms

‐ Sections 7 to 14 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantee Canadians legal rights

‐ These rights cannot be taken away without a proper legal process

Indictable offences: more serious cases handled by provincial supreme courts.

Summary offences: usually less serious and handled by lower courts.

Supreme Court of Canada: The highest court for all legal issues in Canada since 1949. The Governor

General on the advice of the Prime Minister appoints the 9 members. The minister of justice encourages

lawyers and judges to recommend suitable candidates. 3 of the 9 justices must be from Québec, 3 from

Ontario, one from the Maritimes and 2 from the Western Provinces. One is chosen by the Prime

Minister to be Chief Justice. In 2000, Beverley McLachlin was the first woman to hold that title.

Penal system: The judge sentences those convicted of crimes. They may force the offender to pay a

fine, make some kind of restitution to the victim, perform community service or go to prison. In first

offences, a judge may place the offender on probation: A set period of time where they must follow

conditions set by the court.

Life in prison: This is the maximum sentence. It means 25 years without parole.

Parole: The right to early release for good behavior.

‐ Prisoners serving sentences of under 2 years go to provincial prisons

‐ Those with longer sentences serve in federal institutions

‐ There are minimum, medium or maximum security institutions

‐ Canada has one of the highest rates of imprisonment (incarceration) in the Western World

Youth and the Law

‐ Before the 20th century, youth got no special treatment when they broke the law

‐ The Young Offenders Act: Passed in 1984, giving lenient treatment to young offenders

‐ Youth Criminal Justice Act: Passed in 2000, representing a move towards harsher

punishments for youth, especially those who committed serious crimes

‐ Youth between the age of 12‐17 who are charged with a crime are guaranteed the same

legal rights under the Charter as any other citizen

‐ They get special rights because of their age also, with the exception of serious crime

offenders

‐ Youth court: Special courts especially for youth, where the judge alone hears the case. A

sentence is called a disposition in youth court and can vary from jail to community service.

Maximum jail time for a young offender is 5 years.

Information Technologies and the Law

Technology‐assisted crime: Websites have facilitated gambling, pornography and even hate sites

Canadian Radio‐Television and Telecommunications Commission: the body responsible for

regulating communications in Canada. The Commission decided that general laws governing

hate propaganda and pornography were enough to protect Canadians.

The Canadian Centre for Information Technology Security: a joint initiative of the British

Columbia Police Academy and the Justice Institute of British Columbia. Their coal is to help

police deal effectively with technology‐assisted crime.

THE ERA OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights: Rights that are considered basic to life in any human society.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Proclaimed at the United Nations General

Assembly in 1948. It is based on the belief that “all human beings are born free and equal in

dignity and rights”. It is now binding upon Canada in international law, and the UN has gotten

most countries to agree with its general principles.

The Right to Vote

1947 – Canadians of Chinese and East Indian descent get the right to vote

1947 – The Chinese Immigration Act was also repealed, allowing Chinese wives and children to

join husbands and fathers who were already Canadian citizens.

1949 – Japanese‐Canadians that had been relocated during WWII were allowed to return and

were also given the right to vote.

1960 – Aboriginals obtained the right to vote.

In 1960, Diefenbaker passed The Canadian Bill of Rights

‐ It formally recognized and outlined rights already held by Canadians under common low

‐ However, the bill could be amended like any piece of legislation

THE CHARTER

Fundamental Freedoms: Section 2 protects the fundamental freedoms of conscience, religion, thought,

belief, expression, peaceful assembly and association.

Equality Rights: Section 15 of the Charter guarantees equality “before and under the law”. Every

individual has access to the courts. Section 15 also prohibits any discrimination against individuals on

the basis or race, colour, religion or any disability.

The Notwithstanding Clause: Section 33 of the Charter, which gives the government an escape clause.

This allows the government to pass a law even if that law violates a specific freedom or right as given by

the Charter.

The BC Human Rights Code: Protects British Columbians from discrimination of all kinds. It covers

employment, tenacy and property purchases, accommodation, services and facilities customarily

available to the public and hate propaganda.

‐ Females often get paid less for the same amount of work that men do

‐ In order to avoid this, The Canadian Human Rights Act of 1986 states that it is

“discriminatory practice for an employer to establish a difference between male and female

employees”.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child: The first legally binding international agreement to include

children’s civil and political rights. It was adopted in 1989 by the United Nations General Assembly. It

stated that children had the right to freedom of expression, that children should not be separated from

their parents unless it was in their best interest, that children should have the highest standard of health

and a right to education.

‐ 1979 was considered the International Year of the Child

Canadian Coalition for the Rights of the Child: An organization consisting of over 50 organizations,

conducting research into how well Canada fulfills its international obligations for children’s rights.

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

POPULATION

Demography: the statistical study of human populations.

Census: A complete way of gathering information, defined as the total process of collecting,

compiling and publishing demographic, economic and social data pertaining to a particular time,

to all persons in a particular country. It comes in the form a questionnaire. Canada has done a

major one every 10 years since the Confederation and a less detailed one every 5 years.

Canadians are required by law to fill it out. Censuses are usually more accurate in developed

countries as there is technology available to keep data current. In developing countries

however, the data is usually less accurate.

Components of Population Change: a) how many people are born

b) how many die

c) how many move in and out of an area

AKA: Births – deaths + immigrants – emigrants = increase/decrease in population

Crude birth rate: Number of births in one year, divided by the population, multiplied by 1000.

Crude death rate: Number of deaths in one year, divided by the population, multiplied by 1000.

Natural increase: Subracting crude death rate from crude birth rate. (Does not include immigration!)

Exponential rate of increase: Imagine that a couple has four children and each child grows up to have 4

children. By the 3rd generation they will have 16 descendants. Instead of a regular rate of 1, 2, 3, 4, an

exponential rate increases by 1, 2, 4, 8, etc.

Rule of Seventy: A convenient way to express exponential population growth, using the length of time it

would take for a population to double in size. It states that Doubling Time is approximately equal to 70

divided by the growth rate (in percent) per year.

MIGRATIONS

Immigration rates – rate of people entering the country. Calculated by number of immigrants

divided by the population, multiplied by 1000.

Emigration rates – rate of people leaving the country. Calculated by number of emmigrants

divided by the population, multiplied by 1000.

Net Migration Rate: The difference between the Emigration rate and the Immigration rate.

Birth rate – Death Rate +/‐ Net Migration Rate = Population Growth Rate

Canada, the US and Australia are several countries in which immigration is a significant factor of

population growth. Most immigrants are young and generally single males, which gives the host

countries a younger population which results in a higher birth rate.

Life expectancy: The average number of years than an individual is expected to live.

‐ Life expectancy is over 75 today in Canada, whereas in the 17th century, it was little over 30.

‐ Birth rates back in the 18th century were high, but population growth was slow because

death rates were also high.

‐ After World War II, the World Health Organization and aid programs made improved health

measures available to all countries. Death rates fell, but birth rates were still high in

developing countries, explaining the rapid population growth in such areas of the world.

The Demographic Transition model: Shows changes over a period of time in 3 elements: birth rates,

death rates and trends in overall population numbers. It assumes that in any country, high birth rates

and high death rates will gradually fall. It assumes that countries will pass through periods of

industrialization/urbanization that reduce birth/death rates.

Age structure: Age structure of a population helps us understand why things change within a population

Three age groups have been determined: Children up to 15, working adults from 16‐24 and adults 65+.

Dependency ratio: The three age groups give us the proportion of the population that is being

supported by the working age group.

‐ Children and older people put pressure on society for medical, education and other services

Population Pyramid: a graph that shows the age and sex structure of a population. It has horizontal bar

graphs for males and females placed back to back at age intervals of 5 years (called cohorts).

Expanding population: Countries with high birth rates and many

children. (Shown on the left)

Stable population: Birth rates and death rates in balance.

Contracting population: A growth rate below replacement level.

‐ Canada’s birth rate and death rate have been dropping steadily, meaning the population is

getting older

‐ The increasing number of elderly people put strains on social/medical services

‐ Less children to look after aging parents means more long term care for the elderly

‐ The number of immigrants entering Canada is around the 200 000 mark

‐ More money is now spent on handling refugee claims than processing regular immigration

‐ The aging population has been declared by the government as the greatest future challenge

Population distribution: the way people are spaced over the Earth’s surface.

Ecumene: permanently inhabited places.

‐ Approximately 35% of the world’s land is not good for settlement.

Population density: The number of people in a given area.

Crude densities: Calculated by dividing the population of a country by its area.

Nutritional density: how much nutrition in calories can be produced fro the land.

‐ World population will continue to grow in the 21st century

‐ Age structure is important in dealing with how fast a population will increase

‐ Developing countries are likely to have a faster population increase

LIVING STANDARDS

‐ Each year the UN publishes a Human Development Report, ranking its member countries

according to three measures:

o Adult literacy

o Life expectancy

o Per capita GDP (gross domestic product)

‐ Gross Domestic Product: The total value of all goods and services produced in a country in

one year. Dividing this by the population of the country gives you the average GDP per

capita (per person).

Infrastructure: Things such as transportation and communications links, electric‐power distribution

systems, schools and hospitals.

First World Countries: developed countries, the most wealthy countries.

Second World Countries: Newly industrialized countries who are building up their industries and

infrastructure.

Third World Countries: Developing countries without modern infrastructure or many industries.

The Highly Indebted Poor Countries: Developing countries at the bottom of the UN Human

Development Index who are in debt to the developed nations.

‐ Quality of life includes health, levels of nutrition, life expectancy, literacy, the status of

women and children, freedom of speech, economic freedom and the environment

‐ Poverty is also measured in different ways

o One measure sets the absolute poverty line in developing countries at less than a

dollar per person per day. The World Bank estimates that with this, 1.3 billion

people live below the poverty line.

‐ Almost 800 million people in developing countries are starving or malnourished

Debt: After World War II, The International Monetary Fund and The World Bank were set up to provide

loans to help countries improve their living standards. They encouraged the countries to invest in

projects to boost economic growth, however many of the projects failed. As the developing countries

could not repay the companies and began borrowing from Western banks, they accumulated gross

amounts of debt.

Structural adjustment programs: Programs that require indebted countries to restructure their

economy by welcoming foreign investment, increasing exports and turning government services over to

the private sector in return for loans from the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.

Multinational companies: Large companies that operate in more than one country, often with a lot of

political power.

Bilateral aid: Assistance from one government to another.

Multilateral aid: Assistance funded by a number of governments and usually involves large scale

projects.

Tied aid: Aid given with conditions attached.

Canada’s Foreign Aid Program:

‐ The Canadian International Development Agency and several NGOs support foreign aid

countries all around the world

The Clean Water Crisis

An estimated 1.2 billion people around the world lack safe water

80% of the world’s diseases are cause in some way by contaminated water

Ex. Cholera, typhoid, malaria, leprosy and bilharzias

‐ Epidemics such as HIV/AIDS and malaria are still widespread in the world

‐ Pandemic: an epidemic that occurs over a wide geographic area.

URBANIZATION

Urbanization: the movement of people to cities.

CAUSES:

o Mechanization: the use of machinery displaced workers in mining, fishing and

farming.

o Industrialization: The switch to an economy dependent on manufacturing industries

encouraged the concentration of manufacturing sites which became destinations

for workers leaving rural areas.

o Technological change in fuel sources: The switch from firewood to coal and then

petroleum meant energy supplies could be brought to the city much easier.

‐ Urban areas are growing 1.5x faster than the world population growth

‐ In‐migration: People moving in to cities.

‐ Squatting: Living on land that you do not own.

‐ Push factors: Factors that push people to leave their rural homes.

‐ Pull factors: Factors that attract people to move to the city.

Site: the physical characteristics of the land on which a city is built.

Situation: the relationship between the city and its surroundings.

If site and situation can accommodate the right kinds of activities, a community may be built

However, communities may die if their site/situation cannot sustain them

Basic activities: AKA town forming activities. Examples include industries, tourism, military facilities and

transportation.

Non‐basic activities: AKA town‐serving activities such as grocery stores, churches, parks and other

recreational facilities.

The multiplier effect: When the creation of one job is linked to other multiple jobs being created

somewhere else. This leads to unequal growth in different communities.

CITY FORMS

Political and religious cities – designed to serve important religious/political functions such as a

national capital or holy centre.

Organic cities: Cities that have evolved naturally in ways that fit the physical landscape. Urban

functions blend together.

Planned cities: Designed to keep urban functions apart, with separate areas for homes, shops

and industries. These cities are linked by transportation.

Transit cities: Made up of sub‐centres liked to a city core through transportation services. Urban

functions are arranged along transit lines for quite a distance.

Automobile cities: Cities that expand outwards in all directions from the city core. Roads link

urban functions which are separated in zones. These cities are large and usually contain suburbs.

High density life: Where many people live close together.

‐ North Americans have began to prefer living in suburbs, which have popped up in almost

every city on the continent. Cars are now used frequently, polluting the environment and

requiring the changing of water bodies to make roadways more efficient.

‐ Centers of cities are usually the most desirable pieces of land; they are called Peak‐value

intersections as the costs are highest. Land at these areas would guarantee a greater chance

at successful business.

‐ Laws establish what uses will be permitted on certain lands

‐ Official Plan: a broad plan for growth and development that is usually drawn up by a city

after lengthy consultations with its people.

‐ By‐Laws: Local laws or rules that ensure people respect the land‐use zones

‐ Sustainable cities: Cities that do not compromise the quality of life for future generations.

Characteristics of such cities include an effective transport system, a ix of land uses, a

variety of affordable housing, an effective infrastructure, civic amenities such as parks and

maximum use of alternative energies.

Urban Problems:

Energy Consumption: Cities use 80% of energy. Alternative sources of energy would be ideal.

Transportation: Most urban dwellers use cars to commute in cities, causing more pollution.

Food: Almost all food in cities must be imported, resulting in more pollution.

Wastes: North Americans are the most wasteful people on Earth. Recycling has become

increasingly popular; however more must be done to control the amount of waste that pours

into landfills.

Density: Too many cities waste space. The process of infilling could increase density by rezoning

and rebuilding areas to accommodate a higher population.

PATTERNS IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Economic disparity: When money is spent on luxury items for the rich while other members of society

are starving and struggling under the poverty line.

Economy: the sum of all economic activities that take place in a country.

Economic activities: Processes that produce wealth and maintain quality of life.

Money economy: includes all processes of producing/distributing/consuming

Non‐money economy: includes for example, the environment or volunteer work

(contributing to the money sector in an indirect way)

Primary industries: Those that extract natural resources from the physical environment.

Secondary industries: Concerned with manufacturing and construction.

Tertiary industries: Provides services to both businesses and individuals.

Agglomeration: Another word for concentration.

Economic core: A core area that leads the economic growth of a region which usually has higher rates

of pay and attract more investment money.

Periphery: Areas on the sides of the economic core.

Regional Disparity: An uneven distribution of wealth and advantages.

‐ Core and periphery patterns mean that economic opportunities are not evenly spread

Out‐migration: When skilled and educated people leave to seek economic success in areas that seem to

have more opportunities.

Traditional Economy: Depends largely on primary industries such as farming.

Subsistence Agriculture: A type of agriculture practiced in many 3rd World/Developing countries where

they consume what they produce, farming with low levels of technology.

Developing Economy: A change in the economy brought forth by technological innovations ie. The

Industrial Revolution.

Industrialized/Developed Economy: Diverse economies with many areas of wealth generation, where

tertiary industries now employ the majority of workers.

Development factors:

‐ Available natural resources

‐ Stable political system

‐ A literate population

‐ An open attitude towards change and progress

Agribusiness: Farming has begun to evolve into agribusiness, which are farm businesses owned by

corporations controlled by shareholders. They produce specialized products to meet industrial demands.

Computers are integral to this business.

A vertically integrated business: A business that controls all the inputs it uses.

Non‐renewable resources – Resources that can only be used once, such as petroleum. They are being

used up very quickly.

Renewable Resources: Those that regenerate over time such as forests.

Sustainable Development: A concept that requires economies that do not harm the ability of future

generations to sustain themselves.

Scarcity: Economic decisions are now based on this. This concept deals with the fact that resources are

in limited supply and should be used in the most efficient way possible.

Decentralization: The process of moving economic opportunities out of the economic core of an area

and moving them out to the periphery. Governments often use cash incentives to encourage

development elsewhere. Certain economies have even forced relocation.

Sunset Industries: When economic forces make some industries unable to compete. Due to a change in

conditions, they are no longer able to make a profit.

‐ Regional disparities have become a great problem and despite attempts to move economic

resources, attempts have been ineffective

‐ Some say there is no way to combat this natural flow of the economy

ENVIRONMENT

Biosphere: The zone of earth, water and air in which we live.

‐ In the 20th century, concern for the environment began to increase as the government

began to ask citizens to reduce resource consumption

‐ Agenda 21 ‐ an action plan produced by a gathering of heads of state in 1992 in Rio de

Janeiro, Brazil to look at ways of harmonizing economic growth along with a safe

environment. It encouraged the development of a sustainable world economy, however

little progress has been seen.

‐ Only 3% of the water in the world is fresh water

‐ Ground‐water: Underground water

‐ Farmers in the later half of the 20th century began to use drills to tap the groundwater in

aquifiers beneath their land. The water supply seemed endless. The water in aquifiers come

from water seeping through the surface of porous rocks (called permeable rocks). However,

sometimes the water is trapped in between layers of impermeable rock, which does not

allow water to see through.

‐ Surface waters such as lakes and rivers are also being abused

‐ They are used for disposal of sewage and such contamination ruins the ecosystems of many

natural areas

Hole in the Ozone Layer:

Ozone layer: A thin layer of O3 that is 15‐50 km above the Earth’s surface. It is the only gas in the

atmosphere than can block the UV rays of the sun.

‐ In the 1980s, it became apparent that the Ozone layer was thinning

‐ This was most evident in the northern and southern poles, where holes opened in the layers

especially in the spring

‐ Chemicals destroy the layer

‐ The United Nations Environmental Program has been working to phase out the use of

these chemicals. In 1987, all industrial nations agreed to cut their use of such chemicals in

an agreement called The Montreal Protocol.

‐ Gases in the atmosphere trap the heat energy from the sun, causing Global Warming, a

gradual temperature rise due to the CO2 in the atmosphere.

Effects of Global Warming

‐ Heat waves are linked to Global Warming

‐ Glaciers are melting and sea levels are rising

‐ Diseases appear because of increased temperatures and the early arrival of spring

‐ Coral reefs are losing their colour as the algae that give them the colour can’t adapt to

warmer weather

‐ Permafrost: The permanently frozen subsoil that is melting, causing sinking shorelines in the

Arctic.

‐ Kyoto Protocol: Signed by Canada in 1997, it promised to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

by 6 per cent by 2012. Countries not meeting their reduction targets could buy credits from

other countries who had emissions below the allotted levels.

‐ Alternative sources of energy: Wind turbines, solar panels, tidal power, etc.

Soils

‐ Soil is a basic primary resource, the basis of the biosphere and provides survival for plant

and animal life

‐ Only 11% of the land on Earth can grow crops but soil is being lost and degraded around the

world

‐ Desertification: Land turning into desert

‐ CAUSES: Poor farming techniques, irrigation in arid areas has made soils too salty to grow,

soils in tropical countries are nutrient poor and soil on slopes is washed away, potentially

turning the land into a desert

Dependence on Chemicals

‐ The increasing use of pesticides and herbicides can seep into groundwater and streams

‐ This kills insects also and offsets a chain reaction within ecosystems

‐ Genetically Modified Foods: Plants are altered by splicing a gene from another organism

into them, making them more resistant to diseases or pests. They cost less as they require

less pesticides

‐ The general public disagreed with the idea, afraid of long term effects of genetically

modified foods and so they were removed from many shelves and companies all around the

world

Declining Forests

‐ Almost half the forests on Earth have been cleared or reduced

‐ Tropical rainforests are storehouses of biodiversity: the variety of life on Earth. They also

absorb CO2 and give off oxygen. Deforestation contributes heavily to global warming in this

way. It also impacts wind patterns, precipitation levels and temperatures beyond the forests

themselves.

‐ Temperate forests: Canada has 1/3 of the world’s boreal coniferous forest and all of the

world’s red and white pine, used for logging and recreation. The forests are being destroyed

and the Aboriginals worry about their national treasures being threatened. In 1992, the

Canadian government endorsed The Tri‐Council Commitment on Protected Areas, which

planned to complete a network of protected areas by the end of 2000.

‐ Stewardship: the careful management of resources so they are sustainable.

Recent Posts

Recent Comments

Archives

Categories

Meta

Calendar